RESEARCH PROPOSAL

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

1.      Meaning of Research Proposal

2.      Need of Research Proposal

3.      Introduction

4.      Statement of the Problem

5.      Review of Related Literature

6.      Methodology:

7.      Objectives,

8.      Hypothesis,

9.      Sampling,

10.  Tools,

11.  Procedures for Treating Data,

12.  Bibliography,

13.  Time Schedule,

1.Meaning of Research Proposal

 A research proposal is a an outline of your proposed project that is designed to

• Define a clear question and approach to answering it

• Highlight its originality (Doctoral level only) and/or significance

• Explain how it adds to, develops (or challenges) existing literature in the field

• Persuade potential supervisors and/or funders of the importance of the work, and why    you are the right person to undertake it

Research proposals may vary in length, but generally speaking, a proposal should be no more than 2,500 words, or 5 pages in length; 2-3 pages is normally sufficient.

2.Need of Research Proposal

 Potential supervisors use research proposals to assess the quality and originality of your ideas, your skills in critical thinking and the feasibility of the research project. Please bear in mind that PhD programs are designed to be completed in three years (full time) or six years (part time) and Masters programs in two years (full time) or four years (part time). Think very carefully about the scope of your research and be prepared to explain how you will complete it within the relevant timeframe.

Research proposals are also used to assess your expertise in the area in which you want to conduct research, you knowledge of the existing literature (and how your project will enhance it). Moreover, they are used to assess and assign appropriate supervision teams. If

 you are interested in the work of a particular potential supervisor – and especially if you have discussed your work with this person – be sure to mention this in your proposal.

 BEFORE making a formal application, you should identify a prospective supervisor and get in touch with them to discuss your proposal informally, to ensure it is of mutual interest and to gain input on the design, scope and feasibility of your project.

Crucially, it is also an opportunity for you to communicate your passion in the subject area and to make a persuasive argument about what your project can accomplish. Although the proposal should include an outline, it is also an opportunity to establish the attention of readers and convince them of the importance of your project.

PROFORMA FOR FORMULATION OF RESEARCH AND INNOVATIONS PROPOSALS

1. Title of the Study/Project

It should be brief, crisp, and communicate the intent of the study.

2. Introduction

This section may focus on need of the study in the Indian context, overview of the work already done in the area and its linkage with the proposed study, and theoretical perspective (if any, to be followed). It will also include educational significance alongwith rationale of the study.

3. Objectives and/or Research Questions

Specific achievable objectives and/or the corresponding research questions may be spelt out. Hypothesis, if any, may also be spelt out.

4. Likely outcome and benefits

Likely outcome of the study and benefits in the context of school education and teacher education needs to be precisely stated.

5. Methodology

This should include the details of the research design, the modality of collecting information and also the methodology of providing meaning to the collected information.

6. Time Budgeting

The proposal must include a statement about time duration in which the study is proposed to be completed. To make it more rational, it may be desirable to visualize various stages involved in the study vis-à-vis the time requirement for each stage.

7. Organizational Framework

An organizational chart indicating the tasks of the PI, Co-PIs (if any), and JPF (if any) with their duration should be given.

8. Cost Estimation:

The cost of the project is to be estimated in terms of proposed duration of the project and facilities needed. It may contain the following items:

   

1.      Junior Project Fellow with duration for which needed

2.      Travel expenses (TA/DA)of the persons involved (Air travel not permitted).

3.      Purchase of Books, research tools, etc.*

4.      Expenses for development/adaptation of research tools and materials.

5.      Development/Adaptation of Research Tools and materials

6.      Expenses for photocopying and printing of tools

7.      Hiring charges (computer, video recording, etc.)

8.      Preparation of report (draft and final)

9.      Contingency (stationery, postage, etc.)

10.  Overhead charges( 5 per cent of the total cost of the project) admissible on production of certificate from the Institution other than NCERT

11.  Printing of the Report (after getting clearance from NCERT)

12.  The head-wise budget break-up may be submitted in yearly installments.

* Purchase of hardware and durable assets such as almirah, furniture, computer, etc. is not admissible.

Note

The cover page of the proposal should contain names, and full addresses, telephone and fax numbers, and e-mail addresses of the PI and Co-PI.

Beginning the Proposal Process

As with writing a traditional research paper, research proposals are generally organized the same way throughout most social science disciplines. Proposals vary between ten and twenty pages in length. However, before you begin, read the assignment carefully and, if anything seems unclear, ask your professor whether there are any specific requirements for organizing and writing the proposal.

A good place to begin is to ask you a series of questions:

• What do I want to study
• Why is the topic important?
• How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
• What problems will it help solve?
• How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on the topic?
• What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?

In the end, your research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and highlight enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your readers feeling like--"Wow, that's an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out!"

In general your proposal should include the following sections:

I.  Introduction

In the real world of higher education, a research proposal is most often written by scholars seeking grant funding for a research project or it's the first step in getting approval to write a doctoral dissertation. Even if this is just a course assignment, treat your introduction as the initial pitch of an idea. After reading the introduction, your readers should not only have an understanding of what you want to do, but they should also be able to sense your passion for the topic and be excited about the study's possible outcomes.

Think about your introduction as a narrative written in one to three paragraphs that succinctly answers the following four questions:

1. What is the central research problem?
2. What is the topic of study related to that problem?
3. What methods should be used to analyze the research problem?
4. Why is this important research, and why should someone reading the proposal care about the outcomes from the study?

II.  Background and Significance

This section can be melded into your introduction or you can create a separate section to help with the organization and flow of your proposal. This is where you explain the context of your study proposal and outline why it's important. Approach writing this section with the thought that you can’t assume your readers will know as much about the research problem as you do. Note that this section is not an essay going over everything you have learned about the research problem; instead, you must choose what is relevant to help explain the goals for your study.

To that end, while there are no hard and fast rules, you should attempt to deal with some or all of the following:

• State the research problem and give a more detailed explaination about the purpose of the study than what you stated in the introduction. This is particularly important if the problem is complex or multifaceted.
• Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing. Answer the "So What? question [i.e., why should anyone care].
• Describe the major issues or problems to be addressed by your research.
• Explain how you plan to go about conducting your research. Clearly identify the key sources you intend to use and explain how they will contribute to your analysis of the topic.
• Set the boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus.
• If necessary, provide definitions of key concepts or terms.

III.  Literature Review

Connected to the background and significance of your study is a more deliberate review and synthesis of prior studies related to the research problem under investigation. The purpose here is to place your project within the larger whole of what is currently being explored, while demonstrating to your readers that your work is original and innovative. Think about what questions other researchers have asked, what methods they have used, and what is your understanding of their findings. Assess what you believe is still missing, and state how previous research has failed to examine the issue that your study addresses.

Since a literature review is information dense, it is crucial that this section is intelligently structured to enable a reader to grasp the key arguments underpinning your study in relation to that of other researchers. A good strategy is to break the literature into "conceptual categories" [themes] rather than systematically describing groups of materials one at a time.

To help frame your proposal's literature review, here are the "five C’s" of writing a literature review:

1. Cite: keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem.
2. Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in the literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the research problem?
3. Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches and controversies expressed in the literature: what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or debate?
4. Critique the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which approaches, findings, methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? Pay attention to the verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts, demonstrates, etc.].
5. Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your own work draw upon, depart from, or synthesize what has been said in the literature?

IV.  Research Design and Methods

This section must be well-written and logically organized because you are not actually doing the research. As a consequence, the reader will never have a study outcome from which to evaluate whether your methodological choices were the correct ones. The objective here is to convince the reader that your overall research design and methods of analysis will correctly address the research problem. Your design and methods should be unmistakably tied to the specific aims of your study.

Describe the overall research design by building upon and drawing examples from your review of the literature. Be specific about the methodological approaches you plan to undertake to gather information, about the techniques you would use to analyze it, and about the tests of external validity to which you commit yourself [i.e., the trustworthiness by which you can generalize from your study to other people, places, or times].

When describing the methods you will use, be sure to cover these issues:

• Specify the research operations you will undertake and the way you will interpret the results of these operations in relation to your research problem. Don't just describe what you intend to achieve from applying the methods you choose, but state how you will spend your time while applying these methods [e.g., coding text from interviews to find statements about changes to school curriculum].
• Keep in mind that a methodology is not just a list of tasks; it is an argument as to why these tasks add up to the best way to investigate the research problem. This is an important point because the mere listing of tasks to be performed does not demonstrate that they add up to the best feasible approach.
• Be sure to anticipate and acknowledge any potential barriers and pitfalls in carrying out your research design and explain how you plan to address them.

V.  Preliminary Suppositions and Implications

Just because you don't have to actually conduct the study and analyze the results, this doesn't mean that you can skip talking about the analytical process and potential implications. The purpose of this section is to argue how and in what ways you believe your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the subject area under investigation. Depending on the aims and objectives of your study, describe how the anticipated results of your study will impact future scholarly research, theory, practice, forms of interventions, or policy. Note that such discussions may have either substantive [a potential new policy], theoretical [a potential new understanding], or methodological [a potential new way of analyzing] significance.

When thinking about the potential implications of your study, ask the following questions:

• What might the results mean in regards to the theoretical framework that underpins the study?
• What suggestions for subsequent research could arise from the potential outcomes of the study?
• What will the results mean to practitioners in the natural settings of their workplace?
• Will the results influence programs, methods, and/or forms of intervention?
• How might the results contribute to the solution of social, economic, or other types of problems?
• Will the results influence policy decisions?
• In what way do individuals or groups benefit should your study be pursued?
• What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?
• How will the results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will come about?

VI.  Conclusion

The conclusion reiterates the importance or significance of your proposal and provides a brief summary of the entire study. This section should be only one or two paragraphs long, emphasizing why the research problem is worth investigating, why your research study is unique, and how it advances knowledge.

Someone reading this section should come away with an understanding of:

• Why the study was done,
• The specific purpose of the study and the research questions it attempted to answer,
• The research design and methods used,
• The potential implications emerging from your proposed study of the research problem, and
• A sense of how your study fits within the broader scholarship about the research problem.

VII.  Citations

As with any scholarly research paper, you must cite the sources you used in composing your proposal. In a standard research proposal, this section can take two forms, so consult with your professor about which one is preferred.

1. References -- lists only the literature that you actually used or cited in your proposal.
2. Bibliography -- lists everything you used or cited in your proposal with additional citations to any key sources relevant to understanding the research problem.

In either case, this section should testify to the fact that you did enough preparatory work to make sure the project will complement and not duplicate the efforts of other researchers. Start a new page and use the heading "References" or "Bibliography" centered at the top of the page. Cited works should always use a standard format that follows the writing style advised by the discipline of your course [i.e., education=APA; history=Chicago, etc]. This section normally does not count towards the total length of your proposal.

NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

 NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

1.      Research; Meaning and Definition

2.      Scope and Need for Educational Research

3.      Characteristics of Educational Research

4.      Classification of Educational Research

5.      Functions of Educational Research

6.      Nature of Educational Research.

1. Research: Meaning and Definition

The term ‘Research’ consists of two words: Research = Re + Search

‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out something, The research is a process of which a person observes the phenomena again and again and collects the data and on the basis of data he draws some conclusions. Research is oriented towards the discovery of relationship that exists among phenomena of the world in which we live.

Educational research refers to a systematic attempt to gain a better understanding of the educational process, generally with a view to improving it’s efficiency. It is an application of scientific methods to the study of educational problems. The purpose of educational research is progress and good life.

According to J.W. Best

“Educational Research is that activity which is directed towards development of a science of behavior in educational situations. The ultimate aim of such a science is to provide knowledge that will permit the educator to achieve his goals by the most effective methods’

According to Lazarsfeld and Sieber,

“By Educational research is meant here the whole of the efforts carried out by the public or private bodies in order to improve educational methods and educational activity in general, whether involving scientific research at a high level or more modest experiments concerning the school system and educational methods’

According to Monroe “The final purpose of educational research is to ascertain principle and develop procedures in the field of education”.

2. Scope Of Educational Research

The scope of a subject can usually be discussed under two heads:

1. The branches, topics and the subject matter it deals with

2. The limits of it’s operations and applications

The fields of educational research can be classified in terms of following content areas.

1.  Educational Psychology

2. Philosophy of Education

3.  Sociology of Education

4. Economics of Education

5. Educational Administration

6.  Comparative Education

7.  Curriculum construction and Textbooks

8. Educational Measurement and Test development

9.Teacher education and teaching behavior

10. Guidance and counselling

11 Educational Technology

.

1. Educational Psychology

Research in Educational Psychology has great significance for a teacher. The usefulness of various theories of learning for designing conditions that produce effective learning in school has been the central theme of researches in the recent years. Conditions conductive to effective learning, factors helpful in promoting memory and concept formation need attention by the researchers. Promising fields of research in Educational Psychology include. Cognitive, non-cognitive factors such as intelligence, aptitudes, creativity, attitudes, interest, motivation, personality traits, needs and adjustment of pupils various influences of home, neighbourhood, peer relationships and other social relationships that affect child development, growth and learning are worth investigating. The fundamental process of perception, learning and motivation and their applications, the exceptional children, the adolescent problems, achievement etc. should be studied.

 2. Philosophy of Education

Education is the dynamic side of philosophy. Unless based on the sound footing of a systematic philosophy, it’s theory and practice can never attain perfection. Promising field of research in philosophy of education include the following areas.

The aims of education, the motivation of learning the measurements it’s reslts, the construction of curriculum. A study of the utterances of Vyasa and Valmiki, Budha Sankaracharya, Swami Vivekananda, Sri. Aurobindo, Tagore and Mahatma Gandhi, a philosophical analysis of the problems of idiscipline, unrest, strikes, disobedience of authority etc.

P.S. Naidu to has listed following area of philosophy of education in which research may be undertaken.

1.        Need for philosophy of Education

2.        Special features of Indian Philosophy

3.        Indian Philosophy and Indian Education

4.        Indian Philosophical thoughts

5.        The teacher, the learner, Teacher – learner inter relation and interaction

6.        Some Ancient Educational institutions

7.        The abiding elements in Indian philosophy of education

8.        Re-organization of Education to make it Indian on the basis of the exposition attempted so far.

3. Sociology of Education

With the increasing emphasis on sociological foundations of education, the interaction of the two disciplines of education and sociology is getting attention of Indian researchers more and more.

The important problems of research related to sociology of education include the study of population explosion and changes, demographic trends, the impact of political and social pressures on an educational system, educational aims, curriculum contents, methods and techniques in teaching-learning process, conductive to socio economic and politico cultural situations prevailing in the country from time to time.

The role and function of the school may be determined in the light of the needs of the specific community background. In the problem of delinquency, the study of social factors and cultural background of the community important. Problems relating to tribal cultures, rural community, community development, industrialization, urbanization crime and family should be investigated.

The problems like the teacher’s role as an agent of social change and modernization, teacher’s admissions and accademic achievement in schools need to be investigated on the priority basis.

4.   Economic and Education

Studies in Economics and Education include attitude studies and achievement test. Very few studies have been made in educational finance. Some researchers have recently studied the five – year plan allocations and their utilization. A recent study relates to unit institutional costs in Higher Education.

5. Educational Administration

            Much of the work in this area is more or less of survey type. It would be worthwhile to undertake research in the areas of Staff personnel administration, educational legislation, educational planning, school plant planning, school organization, business administration, evaluation of institutions, administrative theory and supervision. Researches may study the place and scope of collective bargaining in education, the impact of compulsory education laws, legal status of voluntary organizations in the administration and control of education.

6.  Comparative Education

            This includes analyzing the educational organization and administrative machinery of two or more countries. Problems like education and national development in terms of economic growth, educational control and reorganization of curriculum, the role of universities, social education, and so on may be subjects of purposeful research. The innovative ideas of work experiences in the country and granting autonomous status to some colleges etc need a comparative probe in to them. Odd has suggested that interstate study in grant in aid system and administrative patterns would be fruitful. It will be worthwhile to make a  comparative study of the procedures, problems of textbook production, the quality of textbooks production and teacher’s reaction to them.

7.  Curriculum construction and textbooks

            A school curriculum will be effective in so far as it is based on adequate knowledge  of how children grow and learn and of the needs of the modern society. The latter is a matter of public relations and the former of research. The research in curriculum needs to be focused on the following issues.

1.Testing experimentally all principles of curriculum construction

2.Curriculum in education that will produce better results in morals

3.To investigate into the sources of curriculum content

4. What is the bearing of psychology on the curriculum

5.What are the future needs of pupils as far as curriculum is concerned?

6.What should be the methods in curriculum making etc.

8.  Educational measurement and test development

            This includes the following areas like construction and standardization of achievement tests. Problems relating to pupil placement, diagnosis, remedial  programmes, norms, psychological tests, observational techniques, rating scales, groups tests of intelligence and aptitude, personality tests etc.

9. Teacher education and teaching behavior.

            Teacher education has received notable attention of educational researchers.These studies relate the areas historical development of teacher – education, curriculum and training programmes co-curriculum and practical work, assessment, evaluation, and prediction of teaching. Some studies have been concerned with attitudes of teachers and student teachers towards various parts of the pre-service and in service programmes. Personal, economic and socio economic conditions of teachers have also been studied.

10. Guidance and counselling

            The areas are, Vocational adjustment of Indian youth, vocational choice and Adjustment, long term manpower needs, future needs, the study of aptitudes, socio-economic status, interest patterns and other personality dimension, tests of intelligence, special aptitudes like art, science and music, special skills and scholastic aptitudes etc.

11.  Educational Technology

            The software approach, hardware approach and systems approached and their impact on the learning of students, programmed instruction, use of science and technology to improve the teaching learning process, communication and media, audio visual aids, teaching machines, projectors and computers are some areas which can be included in research studies. The relative benefits of face to face instruction and televised instruction in teaching of different subjects may be included in the field of research studies.

Priority Areas in Research

1.Education of Backward persons.

2. Free and compulsory education

3. Drop out rate

4. Equal opportunities.

5. Vocationalisation

6. Population Education

7. Education and handicapped

8. Universalisation

9.  Education of Talented persons

10.  Education for economic growth

11. Co-ordination of al agencies in Education

12. Organisation of school meals

13.  Follow up studies of old students

14.  Home work and study habits

15.  Student’s welfare schemes. Etc

3.GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of ‘Research’

1. It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.

2. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.

3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.

4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.

5. It is logical and objective.

6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his hypotheses.

7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.

8. It endeavors to organize data in quantitative terms.

9. Research is patient and unhurried activity.

10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions that may be     unpopular and bring social disapproval.

11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.

12. Conclusions and generalizations are arrived at carefully and cautiously.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

The following are the main characteristics of research:

1. A sound philosophy of social studies as the basis of research

Robert R. Rusk observes. “In the application of scientific procedure to social studies a sound philosophyas well as a sound commonsense must be invoked to save the scientific procedure from itself.”

2. Research is based on insight and imagination

The same writer feels, “Social studies by its reliance on research must never fail to realize that in addition to its practical practitioner and skilled investigators, it stands in need of men and women of imaginative insight, who look beyond, he present and behold the vision splendid. If the vision should fade into the light of common day, not only will the people perish, but research itself will become a sterile futility.”

3. Research requires an inter-disciplinary approach

Research is not the mere description of elementary and isolated facts of nature. It must be related to the study of complex relationships of various facts. It requires an inter- disciplinary approach.

4. Research usually employs deductive reasoning process

Eric Hylla writes in the ‘Nature and Functions of Research’, the science of mind commonly uses methods of description, explanation, interpretation, sympathetic or intuitive understanding methods which are mainly speculative and deductive in character and which rarely furnish results that can be subjected to measurement or mathematical procedures.

5. Research should come out of a desire to do things better

Stephen M. Corey writes. “Better social studiesal means better development or formulation of instructional aims, better motivation of pupils, better teaching methods, better evaluation and better supervision and administration, these are ‘activities’ or ‘operations’.

6. Research is not as exact as research in physical science

No two human beings have ever been found to be alike. No scientific investigations of human behavior even those of socalled “identical twins” have resulted in the findings of individuals completely similar in structure or behaviour. “In the whole world there are probably no two things exactly alike similarly no two human beings are alike, they differ physically in size, weight, height, colour of eyes and hair texture of skin and in a thousand other details as well as in thousands of details of mental, social and spiritual life,” writes H.C. McKown. This fact stands in the way of making research as an exact science.

7. Research is not the field of the specialist only

W.C. Redford writes, “In sum, I believe the teachers in every country have the opportunity and the capacity to undertake some research. Such research, carried out in the day-to-day work of the school, should be concerned directly with the problems of that school. It can properly concern itself with such matters as child development, class organisation, teacher-pupil relationships, interaction with the community, curriculum matters, teaching techniques and many others.” Similarly, V.V. Kamat, in an article entitled “Can a teacher do research?” published in ‘Teaching’ making these remarks: “Any teacher with commonsense, intelligence and insight can undertake research in a problem. In the beginning such workers may require some guidance and training but this can be made easily available to them at the hands of experts.”

8. Research generally requires inexpensive material

In many social studies research studies we simply need subjects, i.e., children, their social studies tools of daily use, paper and pencil and a few tests.

9. Research is based on the subjectivity and intangibility of social phenomena

Lundberg has pointed out that the physical phenomena may be known directly through sense, whereas social phenomena are known only symbolically through words representing such phenomena as tradition, custom, attitude, values and the whole realm of so called subjective worlds.

10. Research is perhaps incapable of being dealt through empirical method

According to Lundberg “Exact science tends to become increasingly quantitative in its units, measures, and terminology while most of the matter of social science is quantitative and does not admit of quantitative statement. We can talk of urbanisation, cultural assimilation etc. but we can’t measure quantitatively. We may talk of growing indiscipline, but unless we can measure it, unless we can ascertain the degree of indiscipline, we cannot find a perfect cure.”

According to Mitchell, “Even in the work of the most statistically minded, qualitative analysis

will have a place. Always our measurements, the pre-conceptions shape our ends, our first glimpses of new problems, our widest generalisations will remain qualitative in form.”

11. Research is based on inter dependence of causes and effect

In case of a social phenomena the cause and the effect are inter dependent and one stimulates the other. It becomes, therefore, very difficult to find as to what is the cause and what is the fore effect. MacIver rightly points out, “Social science has hitherto suffered greatly from the attempt to make it conform to method derived from the order and more abstract sciences. It has led us to look for impossible results and to be disappointed at not getting them. We enquire, for example, after the manner of physical sciences which of the two related social phenomena is cause and which the effect. It usually turns out in the social sphere, that both are cause and both are effect.

12. Research cannot be a mechanical process

Symonds concludes that research is, ... “not something that can be ground out as by a machine. Research can never be made a mechanical process. There is no problem worthy of study that does not include unknown elements and does not require a fresh approach and attack. Too much of the research done by students in recent years has smaked of the mechanical or merely following the methods and procedures of some predecessors without clear insight, into the problem itself or the methods to be used in attacking it. Much of the research in social studies that is being published fails to receive recognition because it lacks that spark of originality that must accompany an attack on a new problem. Research methods and techniques can be taught, but after they are mastered there is still the problem of attacking a new problem and genuine contribution to social studies cannot be made without the willingness to pioneer into new fields or to work out new procedures. Genuine research must be an exploration. Any student who wishes to undertake research in social studies must be willing to take venture into the unknown and only by doing so he will bring back the fruit of genuine discovery.”

4. CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH

In actual practice, research is conducted at different levels and for different immediate purposes. The level at which a person operates in the field depends on the objectives he intends to accomplish.

Generally research has two levels:

1. Basic level and

2. Applied level.

1. Basic Level

Trevers has defined basic level as basic research. It is designed to add an organized body of scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value.

2. Applied Level

Applied research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical problem and the goal of adding to scientific knowledge is secondary. A common mistake is to assume that levels differ according to complexity and that basic research tends to be complex and applied research. Some applied research is quite complex and some basic

research is rather simple.

KINDS OF RESEARCH

There are various bases to classify the research.

A. On the Basis of Objectives of Research

On the basis of objectives of research they are of two types:

1. Fundamental research and

2. Action research.

B. On the Basis of Approach of Research

On the basis of approach of Research they are of two types:

1. Longitudinal research: Historical research, case study, genetic comes under longitudinal approach of research.

2. Cross sectional research: Experimental research, survey are the examples of cross sectional research.

C. On the Basis of Precision in Research Findings

On the basis of precision (accuracy) the researches are:Experimental research and  Non-experimental research.Experimental research is precise while non-experimental is not.

D. On the Basis of Nature of Findings

On the basis of findings Researches are of two types:

1. Explanatory research: Such researches explain more concerned theories. laws and

principles.

2. Descriptive research: These are more concerned with facts.

E. According to National Science Foundation

These National Science Foundation formulated a three-fold classification of research.

1. Basic research: Those researches which embrace origin or unique investigation for the

advancement of knowledge.

2. Applied research: Which may be characterized as the utilization in practice.

3. Development research: It is the use of scientific knowledge for the production of useful materials, devices, systems, methods for processes excluding design and production engineering.

F. Another Classification

1. Adhoc research: Adhoc research is the class of inquiry used for a purpose alone and

special.

2. Empirical research: Empirical research is that which depends upon the experience or

observation of phenomena and events.

3. Explained research: Explained research is that which is based on a theory.

4. Boarder line research: Boarder line research is that which involves those main two branches or are as of science. For example study of public school finance.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

There are three types of objectives of research: theoretical, factual and application. The first two types of objectives of research contribute new knowledge in the form of new theory and facts in a particular field of study or discipline. The third objective does not contribute to knowledge but suggests new application for practical problems. Thus, the researches are classified broadly into two categories:

1. Fundamental or Basic research, and

2. Action research or Applied research.

5. THE FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH

1.      It obtains the scientist knowledge about all educational problems. It also helps in obtaining specific knowledge about the subjects involved in the study.

2.      In action research, the researchers are teachers, curriculum workers, principals, supervisors or others whose main task is to help, provide good learning experiences for pupils.

3.      In it, a person tries to enable him to realise his purposes more effectively. For example: A teacher conducts his teaching more effectively. An administrator, in the education department performs his action to improve his administrative behaviour.

4.      Action research is a procedure which tries to keep problem solving in close contact with reality at every stage.

5.      In educational system it conduits for the progress of the technique of teaching.

6.      It strengthens and emphasizes the work of the teacher.

7.      It has a great utility of creating new interest and new confidence in the ability of the individual teacher.

8.      Action research provides practical utility. For class-room teacher, he applies his own observations into his class-room practices to make the observed problems solved. Minor problems in the class­room can be solved by applying the teachers' intelligence.

9.      Action research brings changes in the teachers. It makes them co-operative and active in facing the situation easily. It also happens to bring about changes in the behaviour, attitude and teaching performance.

10.  Planning is the primary criteria in educational research as well action research. To go through the problems much in sight is needed. For solving all these problems the teacher goes on reading references, literatures and also research techniques. So theoretical learning becomes fruitful when it is practically applied in the proper situation to solve problems in action research.

11.  In education, all kinds of professional workers are able to solve their practical to improve their own profession. Generally, action research helps the teacher to face day-to-day problems in the class­room. He makes himself mentally stable and active to confront the situation. He starts his lesson with full aspiration and hope.

6        NATURE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH.

The following characteristics are related in that, as a whole, they describe the nature of research:

1. Research is empirical;

2. Research is systematic;

3. Research should be valid;

4. Research should be reliable;

5. Research can take on a variety of forms.

McMillan and Schumacher (1989) define research as “a systematic process for collecting and analyzing information (data) for some purpose.”

Kerlinger defines scientific research as “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations among such phenomena.”

1. Research is Empirical: Scientific Method:

Empiricism is the concept that all knowledge is derived from a sense experience; this experience results in some information form—data– so that knowledge can be generated upon it. Researchers work upon data; this may involve organizing them, generating hypotheses, testing them and so on.

2. Systematic Process of Research:

1.      Identifying a problem: The nature of the problem is to be defined; related knowledge is identified and a framework to conduct the research is established. In addition, necessary assumptions and conditions are also identified.

2.      Review information: The researcher reviews how others approached a similar problem; i.e. Literature review. Scientific Method: research process is considered to consist of a series of sequential steps. Scientific Inquiry: search for knowledge through recognized methods of data collection, analysis and interpretation. ü To make research systematic, researchers use the approach of scientific inquiry and scientific method. v

3.      Data collection: Collecting data requires a proper organization and control to validate the data to make decisions upon them

4.      Data analysis: Data analysis must be done in a manner appropriate to the problem.

5.      Drawing conclusions: Following data analysis, researchers draw conclusions and make generalizations based on the data they had collected.

3. The Validity of Educational Research:

Researches must be based on facts; i.e. capable to be justified. There are two concepts: internal validity and external validity.

An example of high external validity: In a school district that has five elementary schools, a survey via telephone was conducted on the perceptions of parents who have children studying in these schools; the questions covered all point of interest to the schools. From each school, 25 parents were chosen randomly. The total number is 125. - The population to which the results of this study are to be generalized is the population of parents who have children in the five elementary schools. - It is unlikely to generalize the research to other schools that use other schools systems. If done, an argument for similarity of parents must be provided.

 Internal validity is a prerequisite for external validity because if the results cannot be interpreted accurately with confidence, researchers cannot generalize them.

External Validity: the extent to which research results can be generalized.