UNIT-III
INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY
Instructional Technology –
Meaning and nature-
Programmed Instruction –
Meaning, nature and principles - Types of Programmed Instruction – Linear, Branching
and Mathematics - Merits and demerits of Programmed Instruction.
Instructional Technology –
Meaning and nature
Technology is
a of scientific or other organized knowledge to practical tasks.Instructional
technology – application of learning theory and emergent technologies in
solving instructional and performance problem
Instructional Technology (IT) is a field concerned with
improving the efficiency and effectiveness of instruction involving: designinginstruction (including all the phases of activity
from needs assessment to evaluation) applying learning theory to instructional design.
The scholarly
study of this emerged in the 20th century. It is called Instructional
Technology. The desire to enhance education with technology has existed for thousands
of years. Humans have always sought ways to improve instruction by using
physical and mental representations (eg, technology) to better explain complex
ideas,education
Design, development, use, management and evaluation of process and resources for learning. Instructional technology aims to promote the application of validated, practical procedures in the design and delivery of instruction. It is often defined either in terms of media and other technology used (e.g. audiovisual media and equipment and computers), or in terms of a systematic process which encompasses instructional design, development, delivery and evaluation.
Design, development, use, management and evaluation of process and resources for learning. Instructional technology aims to promote the application of validated, practical procedures in the design and delivery of instruction. It is often defined either in terms of media and other technology used (e.g. audiovisual media and equipment and computers), or in terms of a systematic process which encompasses instructional design, development, delivery and evaluation.
“Instructional Technology is the theory and
practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of
processes and resources for learning.”(Seels & Richie, 1994, p. 1)
The new definition indicates that
“Educational Technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating
learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate
technological processes and resources.” (Januszewski & Molenda, 2008, p.2).
While the new definition builds on the definition proposed in 1994, several
changes can be observed. Analyzing these changes in the definition of the field
will help understand how the field is now perceived by professionals. The
following paragraphs attempts to explore the similarities and differences
between 1994 and 2008 definitions
NATURE OF INSTRUCTIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
Instructional Technology (IT)
is a field concerned with improving the efficiency and effectiveness of
instruction involving:
- designing
instruction (including all the phases of activity from needs assessment to
evaluation)
- applying
learning theory to instructional design
- selecting
delivery systems and designing techniques for a given delivery system
- assessing
human characteristics
- conducting
process and product evaluation
- managing
change and adopting innovations
- building
teams and managing projects
- integrating
instruction with other factors that influence human performance
- implementing
delivery to reach learners when they need it
- using
technology in support of the development and delivery of instruction
PROGRAMMED
INSTRUCTION
The term Programmed
Instruction is probably derived from B.F.Skinner’s (1954) paper “The Science of
learning and art of teaching”. Programmed Instruction sometimes referred to, as
programmed learning is a process or techniques of teaching in a sequence of
controlled steps. In most cases student work through Programmed material by
themselves and at their own speed and after each step they test their4
comprehension by answering set question are fill-in missing terms. They are
immediately shown their correct answers or given additional information.
In the words of smith & Moore “Programmed Instruction is the process of
arranging the material to be learned into a series of sequential steps, usually
it moves the student from a familiar background into a complex and new set of
concept principles and understanding.
There are following
characteristics of Programmed Instruction learning material.
1. PI based learning material is
Individual and only one person can learn by it at a time.
2. PI based learning material is divided
into various small steps.
3. PI material is arranged into in a series
of sequential step.
4. Each step is related with another
step.
5. The learner should have made active
response.
6. Learner get immediate feedback in PI
based material.
7. Students learn by “Principle of self
pacing”.
8. PI material is Pre-tested and valid.
9. In PI based learning Error Rate and
Fault rate is very less.
10. In PI
based learning stimulus, Response and Reinforcement both are active.
Fundamentals of Programmed Instruction
1. Stimulus and Response.
2. Behavior and Behavior repertoire.
3. Reinforcement
4. Transfer of Stimulus control
5. Feedback
6. Confirmation
7. Prompting
8. Generalization and Discrimination
9. Gradual Progression
10. Successive approximation.
11. Diagnosis
and Remediation.
12. Retrogressive
chain.
13. Programmed text.
14. Learner controlled Instruction.
Styles/Types of
programming
There are three types of programming.
1. Linear
Programming.
2. Branching
Programming.
3. Mathetics.
Linear Programming:
The founder of this programming is B.F. Skinner. It is based on theory of
operant conditioning. It tells that “A Certain direction can be given to human
behavior”, for this purpose activities is needed to divide in small parts and
make their analysis.
Linear
programming is based on five fundamental principles-
1. Principles
of small step.
2. Principle
of Active responding.
3. Principle
of immediate confirmation.
4. Principle
of self pacing.
5. Principle
of student testing.
The assumption behind the linear
programming is that student learns better if content is presented in small
units, student response if immediately confirmed, results in better learning,
student’s error create hindrance in learning. Student learns better in Laissez
fairy environment.
Frame size in small steps;
include only one element of topic at a time. Each step is complete in itself.
It can be taught independently and can be measured independently. Frame
structure is based on stimulus-response-reinforcement. There are four types of
frames. Introductory frames, Teaching frame, practice frames and testing
frames.
Responses in linear programming
are structured responses and are controlled by programmer and not by learners.
Immediate confirmation of correct responses provide reinforcement, wrong
responses are ignored.
It is used for secondary level
students, used for achieving lower objectives of learning especially for recall
and recognition, useful for student of average and below average intelligence
can be used in distance education programme.
Limitations of Linear programming-
1. No freedom for student to
response.
2. Based on learning theories which
were formulated by experience conducted on animals. A human being is more intelligent,
than animals, he has got an intelligent brain.
3. Every learner has to follow the
same path; therefore, student may cheat from one another.
4. Wrong responses are avoided in
the programme. No remedy is provided for them.
Branching programming
The founder of Branching programming is Norman A
Crowder. It is based on configuration theory of learning. It is a problem
solving approach. It is stimulus centered approach of learning. It is based on
three basic principles-
1. Principle of Exposition,
2. Principle of Diagnosis,
3. Principle of remediation.
Assumptions behind this
programming are-
A. Student
learns better if he is exposed to whole situation or content.
B. Student
errors help in diagnosis.
C. Student
learns better if remediation is provided side by side.
D. Student
learns better in democratic environment.
Branching
programming is based on certain assumptions like needs of the learner,
wholeness of content, meaningful units, multiple choice items, sufficient
freedom etc. in order to make the content more effective and upto the
understanding level of students. It follows two main techniques viz backward
branching and forward branching technique
Backward
technique:-
In
this technique, the learner goes through the same frame twice. Here the learner
from frame no.1 of the main stream goes to frame no.2 only if he makes correct
response. But if he makes wrong response, he has to go through a remedial frame
where he learns why he make the error and then again goes to frame no.1 in
order to respond correctly. The following diagram will clearly help us in
understanding the procedure of backward technique.
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Frame 1
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Remedial Frame
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Remedial Frame
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Frame 3
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Frame 2
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Forward Technique :-
In
this technique, whether a learner makes a correct or wrong response, he always
proceeds towards the new frame. On making wrong response, he goes through a
remedial frame where in his mistake is fully explained. He then proceeds to the
next frame without moving backward to the original frame. The following diagram
will help us in understanding the procedure of forward technique.
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Frame 1
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Remedial Frame
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Remedial Frame
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Frame 3
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Frame 2
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Branching programming may be produced in a
book form called “scrambled text” because the pages do not follow the normal
sequence as is found in our books, Journals, references etc. An illustration of
such a programme type given by Noman A. Crowder himself is as follows:
Limitations of Branching programming
1. It does not consider learning
process whether learning is taking place or not. Main emphasis is on diagnosing
the weakness of learners and providing remedy to them.
2. There is no sequencing of pages. Student
finds it difficult to follow the steps. He does not find it exciting or
motivating, therefore he does not want to go through these pages.
3. More emphasis on remediation
rather than teaching. Hence, it is only a tutorial approach.
Mathetics
Programming
The founder of Mathetics is
Thomas F. Gilbert. “Mathetics is defined as a systematic application of
reinforcement theory to the analysis and construction of complex repertoires
which represent the mastery in subject matter.” It is based on connectivist theory
of learning. It is a reverse chaining approach. It is based on Principle of
chaining, Discrimination and Generalization. Mathetics programming is based on
following assumptions.
1. Chaining of responses helps in
learning to reach up to mastery level.
2. Reverse chaining of stimuli helps
in learning, i.e. from whole to part, from Complex to simple.
3. Completion of task provides
motivation to students.
Frames size is organized in small
step but in a reverse chain i.e. from complex content to its small, simple units
to attain mastery level; Frame structure is based on
Demonstration-prompts-release. There are two types of frames- 1. Demonstration
frames 2. Prescription frames.
Responses are structured
responses and responses determined by the programmer. Completion of task
provides reinforcement. Wrong responses are ignored. Error helps in
discrimination but not in learning. Its main purpose is to develop mastery of
the content. Main focus is on Mathematics and grammar.
It used for higher classes useful
for complex and difficult task. It is useful for developing concepts of
mathematics and grammar. It can be used in Distance Education.
Limitations of
Mathetics programming:
1. Main emphasis is on mastery of
the content rather than changes in behavior of the learner.
2. Retrogressive chaining of stimuli
if not effective for terminal behavior.
3. It is very difficult to develop
retrogressive learning package.
Advantages of Programmed Instruction.
- Learners
will work individually.
- Students can proceed at
their own pace and at time convenient to them. A slow learner is not
embarrassed.
- This offers a method of
teaching project leaders and others in local communities.
- Those who setup programmed
instruction units may be motivated to plan their efforts more deliberately
and more thoroughly than with traditional teaching.
- It may be less complicated
to keep materials in current Programmed Instruction unit than it is to
update in a textbook.
- Programmed Materials can be
prepared for and adapted to fit almost any local situation related to
nationality, economic or cultural variations in a community.
- Material can be exchanged
from country to country and from state to state, giving flexibility and
variety to extension offering.
Disadvantages
of Programmed Instruction
Programmed Instruction
has disadvantage too, among them are-
a.
The preparation of Programmed Instruction material
is time demanding, many hours are usually required to produce a unit.
b.
Motivation is necessary for students, whether
they’re staff members or layman, to complete units of programmed instruction.
It may be that job promotion in their own organization would be sufficient
enticement. Possibly an item in the individual personnel record would motivate
him to complete a unit.
c.
The extension teacher must keep in touch with their
students working on units and let them know he’s interested in progress and
keeping in touch. This may be difficult to do in some cases, like in case of
high rate of competition.
d.
The technique may be new to the particular students
and they may not complete units satisfactorily because they don’t adequately
understand Programmed Instruction.
e.
Programmed Instruction done on an individual basis
at student’s home or offices would likely have to be limited to the linear
type. While this could be effective, it may not have the potential that more
sophisticated computers would have.
f.
The problem of teacher motivation, one of the human
factors in programmed learning, must be given attention if this method is to
succeed.
