INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGICAL
BASIS OF EDUCATION
Psychology as scientific study , its concerns – mind , consciousness,
behavior and experience: methods of study in psychology – introspection / self
– reporting – observation, survey, case study, interview, experimental - Major
schools of psychology – structuralism, associationism, behaviourism, Gestalt,
Psycho – analytic, Humanistic and Cognitive-Contribution of the schools to
Education.
The word, ‘Psychology’
is derived from two Greek words, ‘Psyche’ and ‘Logos’. Psyche means ‘soul’ and
‘Logos’ means ‘science’. Thus psychology was first defined as the ‘science of
soul”.
1.
Psychology as the Science of
Soul. In ancient days, the Greek philosophers like Plato and
Aristotle interpreted Psychology as the science of the soul and studied it as a
branch of Philosophy. But soul is something metaphysical. It cannot be seen,
observed and touched and we cannot make scientific experiments on soul.
2.
Psychology as the Science of
the Mind. It was the German philosopher Emmanuel Kant who defined Psychology as the
science of the mind. William James (1892) defined psychology as the science of
mental processes. But the word ‘mind’ is also quite ambiguous as there was
confusion regarding the nature and functions of mind.
3.
Psychology as the Science of
Consciousness. Modern psychologists defined
psychology as the “Science of Consciousness”. James Sully (1884) defined
psychology as the “Science of the Inner World”. Wilhelm Wundt (1892) defined
psychology as the science which studies the “internal experiences’. But there
are three levels of consciousness – conscious, subconscious and the unconscious
and so this definition also was not accepted by some.
4.
Psychology as the Science of
Behaviour. At the beginning of the 20th century, when psychologists attempted
to develop psychology into a pure science, it came to be defined as the science
of behaviour. The term behaviour was popularized by J.B. Watson. Other
exponents are William McDugall and W.B. Pillsbury. According to R.S. Woodworth,
“First Psychology lost its soul, then it lost its mind, then lost its
consciousness. It still has behaviour of a sort.”
Definitions of Psychology
B.F. Skinner defined,
“Psychology is the science of behaviour and experience.” Crow and Crow,
“Psychology is the study of human behaviour and human relationships.” William
Mc Dougall, “Psychology is the science which aims to give us better
understanding and control of the behaviour of the organism as a whole.” Kurt
Koffka, “Psychology is the scientific study of the behaviour of living
creatures in their contact with the outer world.”
Educational Psychology
Educational psychology
is that branch of psychology in which the findings of psychology are applied in
the field of education. It is the scientific study of human behaviour in
educational situations.
According to Charles. E. Skinner, “Educational psychology deals with the
behaviour of human beings in educational situations”.
Crow and Crow said,
Educational Psychology describes and explains the learning experiences of an
individual from birth through old age.
” In the words of E.A. Peel, “Educational Psychology is the science
of Education”.
Education by all means
is an attempt to mould and shape the behaviour of the pupil. It aims to produce
desirable changes in him for the all-round development of his personality.
Psychology as a Science(or) Nature
of Educational Psychology:
(Nature,
Characteristics (or) Elements of Educational Psychology)
1. Educational Psychology is a positive
science and not a normative science:
Normative
Science: The science which decides the aims of education i.e. Ethics and Philosophy.
Positive Science:
It deals with discovery of techniques by which goals can be achieved.
As a positive
science educational Psychology not defines the aims of education but it deals
with methods of education.
2. Education Psychology is a behaviour
science.
3. Education Psychology is an applied
science:
Teachers are
primarily concern with group of children and their subject knowledge not
different theories of Psychology and experiments but their knowledge of
Psychology is constantly being applied to unique set of circumstances. “Educational Psychology is an application of
Psychology in the field of
education”.
4. Educational Psychology is a social
science:
Educational
Psychologist not only concern with the effect of group (family, peer,
professional, cultural or social) upon the individual but are also interested
in a wide variety of the personal interactions also.
5. Educational Psychology is a
counseling psychology
6. Educational Psychology is an
educational science:
The domino of
psychology is very broad, including the study of collective behavioural
problems of individuals in educational situations.
7. Educational Psychology is concerned
with human factors in learning.
8. Educational Psychology is a growing
science.
Educational Psychology began with
William James and Edward Thorndike in USA 1808. Since then the field of
Educational Psychology has been developed by research scholar. Now Educational Psychology invades in
computer education also.
METHODS OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
The main objectives of educational
psychology is to develop necessary skills and competencies in the prospective
teacher to enable him to understand, control and predict the behaviour of
learners in educative process at different levels. In order to accomplish its main objective,
educational psychology employs various methods and techniques to collect data
on problems of behaviour of the learners.
The
important methods and techniques of collecting data in Educational Psychology
are as follows:
1. Introspection methods
2. Extraspection / Observation Method
3. Case study method
4. Interview
5. Survey
6. Experimental method / Scientific
Method
1. Introspection Method:
1.
‘Intro’ Means inward,
‘spection’ means looking
2.
Looking into oneself
or observing oneself to know what he is and how he is in his thoughts, feelings and action is
introspection.
3.
The other names are
self study and self analysis or self observation
4.
This method is
developed by structuralisms.
5.
It is a process of
examining one’s own mental process of thought, feelings and motives.
Merits of introspection:
1.
This is the easiest
method and is readily available to the individual
2.
This method does not
require specific time place and equipment as in experimentation.
3.
The information’s are
first hand and quite reliable.
4.
It is the cheapest and
most economical method.
5.
Introspection has
generated research which gradually led to the development of more objective
method.
Limitations of introspection method:
1.
The data collected by
introspection cannot be verified.
2.
The data collected by
introspection is highly subjective.
3.
Introspection can be
done by normal or superior individuals alone.
4.
This method cannot be
done by children
5.
There is a scope for
getting conflicting reports.
2. Extraspection / Observation Method:
Observation literally means looking
outside oneself. This method deals with
the overt behaviour of persons in appropriate situations. Here overt behaviour is measured without any
instrument. The overt behaviour is the
manifestation of covert conditions within the organism. The study of overt behaviour gives indirectly
the clue to the mental conditions of the organisms.
Observation may be of different types:
1.
Direct and indirect
method
2.
Natural and artificial
method
3.
Scheduled and
unscheduled method
4.
Participative and
non-participative method
Merits of Observation Method:
1.
Being a record of the
actual behaviour of the child, it is more reliable and objective.
2.
It is a study of an
individual in a natural situation and is therefore more useful than the
restricted study.
3.
This method can be
used with children of all ages.
4.
It can be used with a
little training.
5.
This can be used in
every situation ( Physical Activities, Workshop, class rooms)
6.
It is adaptable both
to the individual and groups.
7.
Does not require any
special tool.
Limitations and Demerits:
1.
It is useful collect
data about overt behaviour
2.
Subjectivity of
interpretation is another limitation sampling error and observers error.
3.
Recording may not be
accurate.
4.
It reveals only the
overt or expressed behaviour.
3. CASE STUDY METHOD:
A person (place, nation) with a
problem is called a case. A thorough
investigation about a case is called case study.Steps involved in case study
methods are
1.
Study Phase
2.
Diagnosis Phase
3.
Treatment Phase
4.
Follow up Phase
Study Phase:
Since
this technique is barrowed from medical science following criteria to be
collected
A) Social History is collected from
following sources
1.
Preliminary
information: Name, Age, Sex, Parentage,
Education, Occupation, Income, No. of Children, Socio Economic Status
2.
Past History:
-
Conditions of mothers
during Pregnancy
-
Any incident after
birth
-
Physical, mental,
emotional social – illness
-
Relationship between
parents and other members of the family
-
Achievement of the
child
-
Parents death, birth
order etc.
3.
Present
Conditions: Information’s may be
collected from collateral resources regarding their
-
Physical health
-
Mental ability
-
Social Environment –
Family, School friends, home
-
Emotional level
-
Interest
-
School achievements
Diagnosis Phase:
Based on the collected information
the root causes of maladjustment and behavioral problems are identified by the
experts.
Treatment Phase:
During this phase remedial measures
are suggested for the rehabilitation of maladjusted cases.Group therapy,
individual therapy relation therapy are some of the best methods used in this
phase.Educationalist, Psychologists, Psychiatrist and social workers are
utilized in all the phases of case study.
Follow up Phase:
Home visit, and Re-reference are the
some of the procedures involved in this phase.
Advantages:
1.
It is an in-depth
study of an individual specific behaviour / behaviours.
2.
It is an intensive
investigations
3.
This method is the
only method that helps to study the special features of an individual
behaviour.
4.
This method suggests
remedial measures and follow up programmes.
Limitations:
1.
Time consuming
2.
Too subjective,
Casual, uncontrolled and lacking in precise measurement
3.
Only professionals can
do better.
4. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD:
An experiment is a controlled
observation. Experiment method is more
objective, systematic and scientific way of investigation. One of the major contribution of behaviourism
is the development of Experimental method.
Experimental method is a procedure
by which single designed factors are studied by applying on one or group of
factors under controlled conditions.The experiment method uses a systematic
procedure called experimental design.
Experimental design provides important guidelines to the researcher to
carry out his research systematically normally following steps may be involved.
1.
Identification of the
problem
2.
Formulating hypothesis
3.
Selecting an
appropriate design
4.
Collection of data
5.
Analyzing the data and
interpreting the results
6.
Discussion and
conclusion
The Experimental Design can be
divided on the basis of two important factors (1) The control group / Procedure
group (2) The Number of groups
Following are the samples of experimental designs
(1)
One group Design - a)
Post Test Design, b) Pre-Test_ Post Test Design
(2)
Two group Design – a)
Pre-Test_ Post Test Design b) Randomized
control _ group Design c) Matched two
group Design
(3)
Multi-group Design
(4)
Small N_Design
Merits of Experimental
Method:
1.
Experimental method is
the most systematic procedure of solving problem.
2.
The results are
verifiable by other investigators under identical conditions
3.
It provides objectives
and precise information about the problem.
4.
It gives cause –
effect relationship.
5.
It provides innovative
ideas for further experimentation.
Limitations
1.
It is time consuming
and costly
2.
This method needs
specialized knowledge
3.
Human behaviour is
dynamic, so one may not act exactly in the same manner, even in identical
situations.
4.
Experiments are
conducted in artificially determined pattern of behaviour. In real life situation is quite different.
5.
Experimental data do
not provide insight into total behaviour.
6.
Not possible to
construct tools that will make accurate measurements.
5. SURVEY METHOD /
DIFFERENTIAL METHOD
The
survey method of research asks a representative
sample of people oral or
written questions to find out about their attitudes, behaviours, beliefs,
opinions, and values.
The
survey method gathers quantitative data on those thoughts,
feelings, and behaviours and similarities and individual difference between
them. The survey method asks a representative
sample of people the same
questions about particular attitudes, opinions, values and beliefs. If the sample is truly
representative this allows the generalisation of results to the population from which the
sample came.
Surveys
can be used on their own or with other research methods such as the experiment, observation and the interview. The survey method
shares an important feature with the more structured of interviews and
observations. This is the gathering of data by self-report from a respondent or
interviewee. Surveys modes see surveys conducted by post,
face-to-face, by telephone, videophone and the Internet.
A
good survey will be designed well, with standardised instructions
and questions. A pilot survey is often conducted
to allow this to occur. Likert scale of measurement is
used.
Advantages
- A survey
can generate empirical data giving a measurement of
behaviours, attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and values of a target
population.
- Large
amounts of standardised information can be got from
a large number of people in a short space of time. If designed well and
completed by a representative number of people, survey results can be
generalised onto the population from which the representative sample came.
- Surveys
are highly replicable,
and can be used on a longitudinal
basis to constantly update us on questions of interest. Such as voting
trends etc.
- Surveys
are also easy to score,
unless open-ended questions used. We get quantifiable data from a survey
that can be useful to help develop and support hypotheses.
- They
are cheap If a survey is well designed it
is a most useful tool of research in its own right, or as rich soil for
future research using other methods of enquiry.
Disadvantages
- GIGO: Poorly
designed instructions and questions see a survey suffer from the GIGO effect. 'Garbage in, garbage
out'!
- Acquiescence response is a tendency people have to
agree, or say 'Yes'; especially to things that they think don't affect
them that much. Surveys can be very prone to acquiescence response.
- Response set arises when a respondent
think they see a pattern of desired answers to survey questions, and
answers accordingly. To avoid response set, scaling, and the randomisation
of questions is recommended.
How To Design A Good
Psychological Survey.
Following five guiding principles helps in framing good survey questionnaire.
Following five guiding principles helps in framing good survey questionnaire.
1. Keep the
language simple.
2. Keep the
questions short and on one issue.
3. Avoid
technical terms.
4.
Avoid leading questions.
5.
Avoid emotive or moral questions.
The interview method of
research is a conversation with a purpose. The interviewer in one-to-one
conversation collects detailed personal information from individuals using oral
questions. The interview is used widely to supplement and extend our knowledge
about individual(s) thoughts, feelings and behaviours. Interviews can give us
both quantitative and qualitative data
about participants' thoughts, feelings and behaviours. Quantitative data
is reliable and
easy to analyse. The less structured and freer ranging the interview questions
the more qualitative your data becomes. Qualitative data is difficult to
analyse and is not as reliable. There are two categories of interview,
the structured interview and
unstructured interview.
The key feature of the
structured interview is in the pre-planning of all the questions asked.
Structured interviews also allow for replication of
the interview with others. It can be generalized from the finding of the
population from which your interview sample came.
Structured interviews
are conducted in various modes:
face-to-face, by telephone, videophone and the Internet. There are three types
of structured interview.
1.
Structured Interview
A major feature, and
difference, is the degree to which each use standardised and unplanned
questions.
Advantages
Disadvantages
o Restrictive
questioning leads to restrictive answers.
o
Insensitive to participants' need to express themselves.
Advantages
- Flexible, responsive and sensitive to participants.
- Relaxed and natural for those
taking part.
- Highly detailed and
ecologically valid qualitative data
Disadvantages
·
Difficult to replicate.
·
As a result, an inability to generalise your findings to a
wider population.
·
Possible interviewer bias in 'selective' use of leading,
and spontaneous questions.
1. STRUCTURALISM
Structuralism was the first school of psychology. It focused
on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Researchers
tried to understand the basic units of consciousness using a method known
as introspection.
Wilhelm Wundt, is
often associated with this school of thought. He is a founder of the first psychology lab and helped to establish
psychology as a separate science and contributed methods to experimental
psychology. Edward
B. Titchener (His
student ) first coined the term Structuralism to describe this school of thought.
Major
Structuralist Thinkers
·
Edward B. Titchener (1867–1927).
Criticisms
of Structuralism
·
In the present day context experimental methods used
to study the structures of the mind were too subjective
·
The use of introspection led to a lack of reliability in
results.
·
It concerned with internal behavior, which is not directly
observable and cannot be accurately measured.
Strengths
of Structuralism
·
it is the first major school of thought in psychology.
·
Structuralism also influenced experimental psychology.
2. ASSOCIATIONISM
Associationism is the theory that the mind is
composed of elements -- usually referred to as sensations and ideas -- which
are organized by means of various associations. Although the original
idea can be found in Plato, it is Aristotle who gets the credit for elaborating
on it. Aristotle counted four laws of association when he examined the
processes of remembrance and recall:
Major
Thinkers
Hobbes
John Locke
David Hume
David Hartley (1705-1757)
James Mill (1773-1836)
Contribution
1. The law of
contiguity. Things or events that occur close to each other in space
or time tend to get linked together in the mind. Cup- saucer
2. The law of
frequency. The more often two things or events are linked, the more
powerful will be that association. coffee every day- the association will
be strong indeed
3. The law of
similarity. If two things are similar, the thought of one will tend
to trigger the thought of the other. Own Birthday-thinking about others
birthday.
4. The law of contrast. On
the other hand, seeing or recalling something may also trigger the recollection
of something completely opposite. If you think of the tallest person you
know, you may suddenly recall the shortest one as well.
3. BEHAVIOURISM
Behaviorism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson
based on the belief that behaviors can be measured, trained, and changed.
Behaviorism was established with the publication of Watson's classic paper
"Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913).
Behaviorism can perhaps be best summed up by the following quote from the
famous psychologist John B. Watson. Watson is often considered the
"father" of behaviorism:
"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified
world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and
train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- doctor, lawyer,
artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his
talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors."
--John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930
--John Watson, Behaviorism, 1930
Simply put, strict behaviorists believed that all behaviors were the
result of conditioning. Any person, regardless of his or her background, could
be trained to act in a particular manner given the right conditioning.
From about 1920 through the mid-1950s, behaviors grew to become the
dominant force in psychology.
The Basics of
Behaviorism
Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a
theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired
through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the
environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli
shape our actions.
According to this school of thought,
behavior can be studied in a systematic
and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. It
suggests that only observable behaviors should be considered since internal
states such as cognitions, emotions, and moods are too subjective.
As Watson's above
quote suggests, strict behaviorists believe that any person could potentially
be trained to perform any task, regardless of things like genetic background,
personality traits, and internal thoughts (within the limits of their physical
capabilities). All it takes is the right conditioning.
Types of Behavioral
Conditioning
There are two major
types of conditioning:
1.
Classical conditioning is
a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus
is paired with a response. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and
the conditioned response.
2.
Operant conditioning
is a method of learning that occurs through reinforcements and punishments for
behavior. to happen again in the future.
Major Thinkers Who Influenced Behaviorism
There are a number of prominent theorists and psychologists
who left an indelible mark on behaviorism, including:
Criticisms of
Behaviorism
·
Behavioral theories do not account for free will and
internal influences such as moods, thoughts, and feelings.
·
Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning,
especially learning that occurs without the use of reinforcement and punishment.
·
People and animals can adapt their behavior when new
information is introduced.
·
Behaviour is not predicted in human based on the research
results obtained with animals.
Strengths of
Behaviorism
·
Behaviorism is based on observable behaviors, so it is
easier to quantify and collect data and information when conducting research.
·
Effective therapeutic techniques like, intensive behavioral
intervention, behavior analysis,
token economies, and discrete trial training are all rooted in behaviorism.
·
These approaches are often very useful in changing
maladaptive or harmful behaviors in both children and adults through habit
modification.
·
Teaching machine is major contribution of this school of
psychology.
4. GESTALT
Gestalt psychology is a school of thought that
looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole. Originating in the work of Max
Wertheimer, Gestalt psychology formed partially as a response to the
structuralism ofWilhelm Wundt.
The development of this area of psychology was influenced by a number of
thinkers, including Immanuel Kant, Ernst Mach and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
"The
fundamental "formula" of Gestalt theory might be expressed in this
way,” Max Wertheimer wrote. "There are wholes, the behaviour of which is
not determined by that of their individual elements, but where the
part-processes are themselves determined by the intrinsic nature of the whole.
It is the hope of Gestalt theory to determine the nature of such wholes"
(1924).
Major Gestalt
Psychologists
·
Kurt Koffka
·
Wolfgang Kohler
Gestalt Laws of
Perceptual Organization
Have
you ever noticed how a series of flashing lights often appears to be moving,
such as neon signs or strands of Christmas lights? According to Gestalt
psychology, this apparent movement happens because our minds fill in missing
information. This belief that the whole is greater than the sum of the
individual parts led to the discovery of several different phenomena that occur
during perception.
5. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY:
According to Psychoanalysis, what we do and think results
from urges or derive, which seek expression in behaviour and thought. The urges are hidden in the unconscious level
of mind. The expression of these
unconsciouses derives prompt from within the behaviour and thoughts of the
individual. Thus “unconscious
motivation” is the key idea of psychoanalysis.
CONTRIBUTOR OF THIS THEORY:
·
Karl Abraham
·
Otto Rank
MAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
1. TOPOGRAPHY OF MIND:
Freud was the first psychologist who
systematically attempted to explore the unconscious part of human personality.
He compared mental
phenomenon with an iceberg floating on the surface of the water. Whose greater portion remains under the
surface of the water. So we cannot study
a human being by observing his overt behaviour because most of represent
desires, thought and feeling remain in unconscious and continually influence
our behaviour. Following reasons
|
Conscious
Pre conscious
Unconscious
|
|
ID
|
|
EGO
|
|
SUPER EGO
|
Id:
o
Id operates on
pleasure principles
o
Id comprises all that
is inherited or present at birth
o
It is the source of
all mental energy in the individual
o
Id is present in a
true psychic system
o
All the energy for id
is provided by 2 instincts
o
1). Eros-working for
life
o
2). Thantos-working
for death.
o
Eros works by an
energy called Libido
o
Libido seeks its
gratification purely from sexual appetite.
EGO:
-
Operates on Realistic
Principle.
-
It is largely
conscious
-
It is logical in
nature
-
If id were left to its
own devices, it would destroy itself.
-
Ego mediates id’s
energy and directs towards as much fulfillment
-
It is not inborn.
-
Major function of Ego
is continuous maintenance of the organism.
-
It has to master 3
harsh master Id, super ego and external Reality.
SUPER EGO:
·
Super ego operates on
idealistic principle.
·
It strives for
perfection rather pleasure
·
Super ego is a learned
ideal consists of 2 components. They are
o
Ego-Ideal-Learned
through rewards.
o
Conscience – Learned
through punishment
-
If a person does
something wrong, his conscience make him feel guilty
-
In order to avoid
punishment he incorporates all socially acceptable behaviours.
·
It is a don’t part of
a personality
·
It consists largely of
restrictions and obstacles.
Following evidence
Were given by Freud to show the existence of unconscious.
1.
Dreams prove the
existence of unconscious
2.
Slips of tongue and
pen
3.
Forgetfulness
4.
Somnambulism
5.
Solution of problems
during sleep
6.
Post hypnotic
suggestions
7.
Neurosis and
psychosis.
2. THREE QUALITIES OF MENTAL PROCESS:
Conscious,
preconscious and unconscious are the 3 mental processes.
3. PSYCHIC STRUCTURE OF MIND:
Freud
has developed a unique structure of psyche consisting of Id Ego and super Ego.
4. LIBIDINAL DEVELOPMENT:
According
to psychoanalytic theory man is an energy centre. The energy develops in the process of
excitation with in the body which seeks expression and tension reduction. When energy becomes attached to the external
objects of the environment this process is called Cathexis.
According to him following are the
phases of psychosexual development.
|
S.No
|
Psychosexual Stage
|
Actual years
|
Behavior
|
|
1
|
Oral Stage
|
0-1 year
|
Derives pleasure through mouth
|
|
2
|
Anal Stage
|
2-3 year
|
Derives pleasure through eliminating
/ retaining waste
|
|
3
|
Phallic Stage
|
3-5years
|
Derives pleasure from genitals
|
|
4
|
Latency Stage
|
6-Puberty
|
Dormant Period
|
|
5
|
Genital Stage
|
Adolescence
|
Reawakening of sexual urges
|
Major findings
CONTRIBUTION TO PSYCHOLOGY:
1.
Psychoanalysis has
revolutionized the theory and practice of education. Freud discovered unconscious motivation.
Which plays important role in the process of learning.
2.
Psychoanalysis has
laid stress on the importance of the child and his early experience in the process of education. Early experiences of home upto the age of
five years lay down the foundation of personality of the child. Love, affection and sympathy in early
childhood develop positive attitudes in the child, towards life, on the other
hand, punishment and other negative run forcers create problem.
3.
Psychoanalysis had
laid down great importance to the process of catharsis. Children’s should
get opportunities to express their emotions and motives freely in the class and
outside the class.
4.
The greatest
contribution of psychoanalysis is that it has thrown light on the causes of maladjustment in children.
5.
Importance of emotions has been emphasized in the process
of education.
6. It has laid emphasis on freedom in
education and advocated the importance of the development of whole personality.
7. Curricular activities are given due
importance in the school so that pent up
feelings may be released.
8.
The teacher should be positive and concentrate on what
student can do.
6.
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY
c, also often referred to as humanism, emerged during the 1950s as a
reaction to the psychoanalysis and behaviorism that dominated psychology at the
time. Psychoanalysis was focused on understanding the unconscious motivations
that drive behavior while behaviorism studied the conditioning processes that
produce behavior.
Humanistis psychologists gives more importance to humal beings.They are
not considering them as sophisticated machine or a product of the conflict between Id and Ego.
They consider him as purposeful human being, capable of adopt himself to
his environment and chose his own corse of action to reach the goal.Which he
selected for himself. It may be as simple as personal needs or as big as self
realization or personal fulfillment.
This
need for fulfillment and personal growth is a key motivator of all behavior.
People are continually looking for new ways to grow, to become better, to learn
new things, and to experience psychological growth and self-actualization.
Some
of the major ideas and concepts that emerged as a result of the humanist
movement include an emphasis on things such as:
·
Free will
·
Self-actualization
·
creativity, and individuality
·
holistic view of the individual
·
new ways of thinking about mental health
Major Thinkers in
Humanistic Psychology
The
early development of humanistic psychology was heavily influenced by the works
of a few key theorists, especially Maslow and Rogers.
·
Rollo May
Criticisms of
Humanistic Psychology
·
Humanistic psychology is often seen as too subjective; the
importance of individual experience makes it difficult to objectively study and
measure humanistic phenomena.
·
Can’t assess self actualization of a person.
·
Another major criticism is that observations are
unverifiable; there is no accurate way to measure or quantify these qualities.
Strong Points of
Humanistic Psychology
·
One of the major strengths of humanistic psychology is that
it emphasizes the role of the individual.
·
This school of psychology gives people more credit in
controlling and determining their state of mental health.
·
It also takes environmental influences into account. Rather
than focusing solely on our internal thoughts and desires, humanistic
psychology also credits the environment's influence on our experiences.
·
Humanistic psychology continues to influence therapy,
education, healthcare, and other areas.
7. COGNITIVE
Cognitive psychology is a relatively young branch of
psychology, yet it has quickly grown to become one of the most popular
subfields. Topics such as thinking, decision-making, problem-solving, learning,
attention, memory, forgetting, and language acquisition are just a few of the
practical applications of this science.
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that
studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember, and
learn.As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of
psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy,
and linguistics.
The
core focus of cognitive psychology is on how people acquire, process and store
information. There are numerous practical applications for cognitive research,
such as improving memory, increasing decision-making accuracy, and structuring
educational curricula to enhance learning.
A
Brief History of Cognitive Psychology
Until the 1950s, Behaviorism was
the dominant school of thought in psychology. Between 1950 and 1970, the tide
began to shift against behavioral psychology to focus on topics such as
attention, memory and problem-solving. The term "cognitive psychology"
was first used in 1967 by American psychologist Ulric Neisser in his book Cognitive
Psychology.
According to Neisser, cognition involves "all
processes by which the sensory input is
transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is
concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of
relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations.
Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that
cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that every
psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon."
Important People in the History of Cognitive Psychology
· Gustav
Fechner
· Edward
B. Titchener
· Hermann
Ebbinghaus
· Wolfgang
Kohler
· Edward
Tolman
· Noam
Chomsky
· David
Rumelhart
· James
McClelland
Major
Topics in Cognitive Psychology
·
Perception
·
Language
·
Decision-Making and Judgment
To
study the human mind, cognitive psychologists have developed different models
to represent how the thinking works. One of the most popular of these is the information-processing
model. In this approach, the mind is thought of much like a computer. Thoughts
and memories are broken down into smaller units of knowledge. As information
enter the mind through the senses, it is then manipulated by the brain that must
then determine what do to with the information. Some information triggers an
immediate response. Other units of information are transferred into long-term
memory for future use.
Units
of Knowledge
Cognitive psychologists often break down these units of
knowledge into three different types: concepts, prototypes, and schemas.
A concept is essentially a larger category
of knowledge. Similar items are grouped together in the mind under this broad
category. You have concepts for things that are concrete such as a horse or a
dog, as well as concepts for abstract ideas such as love, beauty, and gravity.
A prototype is the most prominent and
recognizable example of a particular concept. For example, what comes to mind
when you think of a bed. If a large, four-poster bed immediately springs to
mind, that is your prototype for the concept of a bed. If a futon, crib, or
platform bed pops into your mind, then that would be your prototype for that
concept.
A schema is a
mental framework that you use to understand and interpret the world around you.
Concepts serve as the building blocks that help build schemas, which are mental
models for how you expect from the world around you. You have schemas for a
wide variety of objects, ideas, people, and situations.
In some cases, however, you will encounter information that
does not quite fit into your existing schemas or dramatically challenges the
ideas you already hold. When this happens, you can either assimilate or
accommodate the
information. Assimilating the
information involves broadening your current schema or even creating a new one.
Accommodation the information by
changing your previously held ideas altogether. This process allows you to
learn new things and develop new and more complex schemas for the world around
you.
Strength of cognitive
psychology
·
Unlike behaviorism, which focuses only on observable
behaviors, cognitive psychology is concerned with internal mental states.
·
Unlike psychoanalysis,
which relies heavily on subjective perceptions, cognitive psychology uses
scientific research methods to study mental processes.
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