INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY UNIT-III

UNIT-III INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Instructional Technology – Meaning and nature-

Programmed Instruction – Meaning, nature and principles - Types of Programmed Instruction – Linear, Branching and Mathematics - Merits and demerits of Programmed Instruction.

Instructional Technology – Meaning and nature

Technology is a of scientific or other organized  knowledge to practical tasks.Instructional technology – application of learning theory and emergent technologies in solving instructional and performance problem

Instructional Technology (IT) is a field concerned with improving the efficiency and effectiveness of instruction involving: designinginstruction (including all the phases of activity from needs assessment to evaluation) applying learning theory to instructional design.

The scholarly study of this emerged in the 20th century. It is called Instructional Technology. The desire to enhance education with technology has existed for thousands of years. Humans have always sought ways to improve instruction by using physical and mental representations (eg, technology) to better explain complex ideas,education
Design, development, use, management and evaluation of process and resources for learning. Instructional technology aims to promote the application of validated, practical procedures in the design and delivery of instruction. It is often defined either in terms of media and other technology used (e.g. audiovisual media and equipment and computers), or in terms of a systematic process which encompasses instructional design, development, delivery and evaluation. 

“Instructional Technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning.”(Seels & Richie, 1994, p. 1)

The new definition indicates that “Educational Technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources.” (Januszewski & Molenda, 2008, p.2). While the new definition builds on the definition proposed in 1994, several changes can be observed. Analyzing these changes in the definition of the field will help understand how the field is now perceived by professionals. The following paragraphs attempts to explore the similarities and differences between 1994 and 2008 definitions

NATURE OF INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Instructional Technology (IT) is a field concerned with improving the efficiency and effectiveness of instruction involving:

• designing instruction (including all the phases of activity from needs assessment to evaluation)
• applying learning theory to instructional design
• selecting delivery systems and designing techniques for a given delivery system
• assessing human characteristics
• conducting process and product evaluation
• managing change and adopting innovations
• building teams and managing projects
• integrating instruction with other factors that influence human performance
• implementing delivery to reach learners when they need it
• using technology in support of the development and delivery of instruction

PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

The term Programmed Instruction is probably derived from B.F.Skinner’s (1954) paper “The Science of learning and art of teaching”. Programmed Instruction sometimes referred to, as programmed learning is a process or techniques of teaching in a sequence of controlled steps. In most cases student work through Programmed material by themselves and at their own speed and after each step they test their4 comprehension by answering set question are fill-in missing terms. They are immediately shown their correct answers or given additional information.

          In the words of smith & Moore “Programmed Instruction is the process of arranging the material to be learned into a series of sequential steps, usually it moves the student from a familiar background into a complex and new set of concept principles and understanding.

There are following characteristics of Programmed Instruction learning material.

1.     PI based learning material is Individual and only one person can learn by it at a time.

2.     PI based learning material is divided into various small steps.

3.     PI material is arranged into in a series of sequential step.

4.     Each step is related with another step.

5.     The learner should have made active response.

6.     Learner get immediate feedback in PI based material.

7.     Students learn by “Principle of self pacing”.

8.     PI material is Pre-tested and valid.

9.     In PI based learning Error Rate and Fault rate is very less.

10.   In PI based learning stimulus, Response and Reinforcement both are active.

Fundamentals of Programmed Instruction

1.     Stimulus and Response.      

2.     Behavior and Behavior repertoire.

3.     Reinforcement

4.     Transfer of Stimulus control

5.     Feedback

6.     Confirmation

7.     Prompting

8.     Generalization and Discrimination

9.     Gradual Progression

10.   Successive approximation.

11.   Diagnosis and Remediation.

12.   Retrogressive chain.

13.   Programmed text.

14.  Learner controlled Instruction.

Styles/Types of programming

          There are three types of programming.

1.     Linear Programming.

2.     Branching Programming.

3.     Mathetics.

Linear Programming:

          The founder of this programming is B.F. Skinner. It is based on theory of operant conditioning. It tells that “A Certain direction can be given to human behavior”, for this purpose activities is needed to divide in small parts and make their analysis.

 

        

   Linear programming is based on five fundamental principles-

1.     Principles of small step.

2.     Principle of Active responding.

3.     Principle of immediate confirmation.

4.     Principle of self pacing.

5.     Principle of student testing.

The assumption behind the linear programming is that student learns better if content is presented in small units, student response if immediately confirmed, results in better learning, student’s error create hindrance in learning. Student learns better in Laissez fairy environment.

Frame size in small steps; include only one element of topic at a time. Each step is complete in itself. It can be taught independently and can be measured independently. Frame structure is based on stimulus-response-reinforcement. There are four types of frames. Introductory frames, Teaching frame, practice frames and testing frames.

Responses in linear programming are structured responses and are controlled by programmer and not by learners. Immediate confirmation of correct responses provide reinforcement, wrong responses are ignored.

It is used for secondary level students, used for achieving lower objectives of learning especially for recall and recognition, useful for student of average and below average intelligence can be used in distance education programme.

Limitations of Linear programming-

1.      No freedom for student to response.

2.      Based on learning theories which were formulated by experience conducted on animals. A human being is more intelligent, than animals, he has got an intelligent brain.

3.      Every learner has to follow the same path; therefore, student may cheat from one another.

4.      Wrong responses are avoided in the programme. No remedy is provided for them.

 Branching programming

The founder of Branching programming is Norman A Crowder. It is based on configuration theory of learning. It is a problem solving approach. It is stimulus centered approach of learning. It is based on three basic principles-

1.      Principle of Exposition,

2.      Principle of Diagnosis,

3.      Principle of remediation.

Assumptions behind this programming are-

A.    Student learns better if he is exposed to whole situation or content.

B.     Student errors help in diagnosis.

C.     Student learns better if remediation is provided side by side.

D.    Student learns better in democratic environment.

Branching programming is based on certain assumptions like needs of the learner, wholeness of content, meaningful units, multiple choice items, sufficient freedom etc. in order to make the content more effective and upto the understanding level of students. It follows two main techniques viz backward branching and forward branching technique

Backward technique:-

In this technique, the learner goes through the same frame twice. Here the learner from frame no.1 of the main stream goes to frame no.2 only if he makes correct response. But if he makes wrong response, he has to go through a remedial frame where he learns why he make the error and then again goes to frame no.1 in order to respond correctly. The following diagram will clearly help us in understanding the procedure of backward technique.

Frame 1

Remedial Frame

Remedial Frame

Frame 3

Frame 2

 

                              

                                       

Forward Technique :-

 In this technique, whether a learner makes a correct or wrong response, he always proceeds towards the new frame. On making wrong response, he goes through a remedial frame where in his mistake is fully explained. He then proceeds to the next frame without moving backward to the original frame. The following diagram will help us in understanding the procedure of forward technique.

Frame 1

Remedial Frame

Remedial Frame

Frame 3

Frame 2

 

Branching programming may be produced in a book form called “scrambled text” because the pages do not follow the normal sequence as is found in our books, Journals, references etc. An illustration of such a programme type given by Noman A. Crowder himself is as follows:

Limitations of Branching programming

1.      It does not consider learning process whether learning is taking place or not. Main emphasis is on diagnosing the weakness of learners and providing remedy to them.

2.      There is no sequencing of pages. Student finds it difficult to follow the steps. He does not find it exciting or motivating, therefore he does not want to go through these pages.

3.      More emphasis on remediation rather than teaching. Hence, it is only a tutorial approach.

Mathetics Programming

The founder of Mathetics is Thomas F. Gilbert. “Mathetics is defined as a systematic application of reinforcement theory to the analysis and construction of complex repertoires which represent the mastery in subject matter.” It is based on connectivist theory of learning. It is a reverse chaining approach. It is based on Principle of chaining, Discrimination and Generalization. Mathetics programming is based on following assumptions.

1.      Chaining of responses helps in learning to reach up to mastery level.

2.      Reverse chaining of stimuli helps in learning, i.e. from whole to part, from Complex to simple.

3.      Completion of task provides motivation to students.

Frames size is organized in small step but in a reverse chain i.e. from complex content to its small, simple units to attain mastery level; Frame structure is based on Demonstration-prompts-release. There are two types of frames- 1. Demonstration frames 2. Prescription frames.

Responses are structured responses and responses determined by the programmer. Completion of task provides reinforcement. Wrong responses are ignored. Error helps in discrimination but not in learning. Its main purpose is to develop mastery of the content. Main focus is on Mathematics and grammar.

It used for higher classes useful for complex and difficult task. It is useful for developing concepts of mathematics and grammar. It can be used in Distance Education.

 Limitations of Mathetics programming:

1.      Main emphasis is on mastery of the content rather than changes in behavior of the learner.

2.      Retrogressive chaining of stimuli if not effective for terminal behavior.

3.      It is very difficult to develop retrogressive learning package.

Advantages of Programmed Instruction.

1. Learners will work individually.
2. Students can proceed at their own pace and at time convenient to them. A slow learner is not embarrassed.
3. This offers a method of teaching project leaders and others in local communities.
4. Those who setup programmed instruction units may be motivated to plan their efforts more deliberately and more thoroughly than with traditional teaching.
5. It may be less complicated to keep materials in current Programmed Instruction unit than it is to update in a textbook.
6. Programmed Materials can be prepared for and adapted to fit almost any local situation related to nationality, economic or cultural variations in a community.
7. Material can be exchanged from country to country and from state to state, giving flexibility and variety to extension offering.

Disadvantages of Programmed Instruction

          Programmed Instruction has disadvantage too, among them are-

a.            The preparation of Programmed Instruction material is time demanding, many hours are usually required to produce a unit.

b.            Motivation is necessary for students, whether they’re staff members or layman, to complete units of programmed instruction. It may be that job promotion in their own organization would be sufficient enticement. Possibly an item in the individual personnel record would motivate him to complete a unit.

c.             The extension teacher must keep in touch with their students working on units and let them know he’s interested in progress and keeping in touch. This may be difficult to do in some cases, like in case of high rate of competition.

d.           The technique may be new to the particular students and they may not complete units satisfactorily because they don’t adequately understand Programmed Instruction.

e.            Programmed Instruction done on an individual basis at student’s home or offices would likely have to be limited to the linear type. While this could be effective, it may not have the potential that more sophisticated computers would have.

f.              The problem of teacher motivation, one of the human factors in programmed learning, must be given attention if this method is to succeed.