EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY UNIT -1

UNIT -1 EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1.      Meaning - Definition

2.      Scope and Significance of Educational Technology,

3.      Difference between Technology in Education and Technology of Education,

4.      Aims and Objectives of Educational technology

5.      Approach: Hardware and Software

6.      Difference between Educational Technology and Instructional Technology

7.      Role of a teacher in Educational Technology.

1.      MEANING - DEFINITION

Definition

              i.   Educational technology is the application of scientific knowledge about learning and contribution of learning to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of teaching and learning.

- G.O.M Leith (1967)

            ii.   Educational technology is the development, application and evaluation of systems, techniques and aids to improve the process of human learning.

- NCET U.K. 1967

         iii.   Educational technology is the body of knowledge resulting from the application of the science of teaching and learning to the real world of the classroom, together with the tools and methodologies developed to assist in these applications.

- National Academy of Engineering’s Instructional committee on Education, USA.

         iv.   Educational Technology in its wide sense as understood today, includes the development, application and evaluation of systems and techniques involving men, machines,media and instructional material as components, so as improve the process of human learning and attain the educational goals.  - Davis and Hartley.

Meaning

            The word “Technology” is derived from the Greek word “Technic” which means art or skill and ‘logia’ means science or study.

            The “Education” originated from the Latin word. ‘Educare’ which means “to bring up” or “to nourish” or Education may be originated from another Latin word ‘Educere’ which means “to lead out” or to “draw out”.

            Thus the educational technology is the science of study of an art or skill in bringing up or nourishing the children in the classroom. Broadly speaking Educational technology can notes three meanings.

Meaning – 1:

“ Using equipments for presenting instruction”

            Educational technology refers to the application of physical science and engineering technology to provide mechanical or electromechanical tools, instrumentation or hardware which can be used for instructional purposes.

Meaning – 2:

            Educational technology refers to the application “scientific principles instruction “and preparation of instructional materials (software)

“ Applying scientific & psychological techniques in preparing instructional materials”

 

Meaning – 3:

Planning, implementing & evaluating a system in education according to scientific principles so as to achieve the educational objectives.

            According to this view education should be considered a system in which machines, materials, media, men and methods are interrelated parts and organised in such a way as they work together for the fulfilment of specific educational objectives.

2.   SCOPE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

(A)             Teaching Technology

Teaching is a such a classroom activity which is completed by the interaction between teachers and students. This activity leads to complete development of students. It differs from instruction in the sense that only teacher is active and communicative in instruction while in teaching,students fully participate in the learning process and outcome is the result of interaction between teachers and students.

Teaching technology refers to the application of laws and principles of science and philosophy for realizing certain objectives in education.Teaching which is an art in itself is made a science when technology gives it a practical,objectives and goal based shape.

Characteristics of Teaching Technology

1.      This technology can make the teaching effective.

2.      This technology also takes the help of sociology , philosophy and psychology from planning to controlling stages.

3.      Here inputs,process and output work together and result in the form of behavioural changes coming to the fore every moment.

4.      All the three domains of objectives,cognitive,affective and psychomotor can be achieved by this technology.

5.      Teaching can be organised  on any of the three levels – memory,understanding and reflective levels by the use of teaching technology.

6.      New teaching theories can be developed by the use of teaching technology.

7.      This technology is equally effective to all grades of learning,i.e.,primary,secondary,post secondary etc.

B) Behaviour Technology

This technology emphasises the application of teaching and learning principles into teaching so that behavior of students as well as teachers may be modified in accordance with the objectives of teaching. Because of this reason, this technology is also known as training technology.

This technology is closely related to psychology. Psychology is the science of behavior and learning is the modification of behavior through activities and experiences. Behaviour technology applies all these principles of psychology to bring about desirable change in behavior.We can train the behavior of any person by reinforcing his desirable response (Skinner)

This technology puts more emphasis on the behavior of the teacher only.For this purpose,behaviour of the teacher than that of students and whatever changes we want to bring about in the behaviour of learners can be brought through the behaviour of the teacher only.For this purpose,behaviour of the teacher is closely monitored and reinforced by expert observers.

Content of Behaviour Technology :

A teacher learns the following subject – matter (topics) under this technology:

1.      Meaning,assumptions and principles of teacher’s behaviour.

2.      Methods of observing teaching teacher’s behaviour and its rating.

3.      Analysis of teacher’s behaviour .

4.      Manifestation of behaviour under different situations.

5.      Evaluation of teacher’s behaviour and its manifestation.

6.      Different models of teacher’s behaviour.

7.      Different techniques of developing teacher’s behaviour,i.e.,reinforcement models.

8.      Micro teaching,team teaching and stimulated teaching .

9.      Social skill training

10.  T group training .

Characteristics of Behaviour Technology

1.      Psychology is the base of this technology.By using  psychological principles and methods teachers behaviour can be modified in the desirable way which will lead to the desirable changes in the behaviour of the learner.

2.      Teaching skills can be developed in teachers with the help of this technology .It means that teachers behaviour in the class can be observed and suggestions canbe given by experts for improvement.

3.      Reinforcement is the backbone of this technology which is used at all desirable responses.

4.      Here teaching activities are evaluated objectively.This makes the evaluation free from bias.

5.      This technology emphasizes more on the realization of psychomotor objectives.

6.      This technology is based on the use of software technology and role of machines is negligible here,through video recording devices can be used for observation and reproduction of behaviour.

7.      This technology is especially useful for teacher training institutions where modification of teacher’s behaviour in the desired direction is needed.

8.      This technology is also useful for principals of schools who can observe the classroom behaviour  of their teachers and suggest remedial measures.

9.      This technology can tell us how teaching can be made successful by keeping the individual differences of students into account.

10.  Content and methods of communication both can be used in order to improve teaching aspects in the class.

C) Instructional Technology :

Instructional technology refers to the communication of content or informations to the learner.Content can be presented on all the three levels.Instructional technology.can however,present the content to the second level of teaching only and we will have to take help of teaching technology for reflective level of teaching.

Similarly,communication also has two elements – verbal and non verbal . For example,questioning by the teacher and its responding by the students in the class is verbal communication.But in non – verbal instructions teacher uses his body actions gestures,stimulus variations and material aids for communicating the content.For example,if a teacher wants to convey the meaning of jump to the class,he jumps slightly and say it is jump.This is non- verbal instruction.

            Instruction can be given either by the teacher or by the machine and it does not make any difference.For example,open universities use TV,radio or Internet for instructing thousands of students in a single setting and whosoever is interested can take the benefit of this programme.Thus,instructional technology is based on hardware approach i.e.,here teaching – learning  material can be communicated to learners by using audio – video recorders,radio,television,or computers.Direct interaction between the teacher and the students is not seen here as is the case of teaching or behaviour  technologies.Instruction can not be termed as teaching due to lack of participation on the part of students .Even a teacher becomes an instructor when he does not invite the students to participate in the lesson.Inspite of that if an instructor is very much effective in his communication  skills,he can make the instructions living and interesting.This technology basically refers to communication of contents in an effective manner either by a teacher or by a machine.

In instructional technology  too,instructional materials are prepared keeping I view the objectives formulated in advance.Then subject- matter is presented by using different strategies,techniques and material aids.Finally the outcomes are evaluated in terms of the objectives in order to ascertain whether instructional process is successful or not.In order to make instructional technology a success,knowledge of psychological and scientific principles and laws and awareness of social values and norms is a must,i.e.,Maxims and principles of teaching must be kept in mind while preparing instructional materials.

Content of Instructional Technology : Following Subject – matter are studied in this technology:

1.      Meaning and definitions of instructional technology.

2.      Meaning and principles of programmed instruction.

3.      Linear programmed instruction,meaning,concept ,principles and models.

4.      Branching programmed instruction,meaning,concept,principles and models.

5.      Computer assisted instruction,its nature and various models.

6.      Construction of programmed instruction in various subjects.

7.      Adjustment procedures of individual differences and development of suitable equipments.

8.      Media and printing equipments and their functioning .

9.      Principles of learnings and instruction.

10.  Devices of feedback and their uses.

Characteristics of Instructional Technology.

1.      1.Objectives of cognitive domain can be achieved by the use of this technology.

2.      This technology can fill up the deficiency of effective teachers because we can communicate the instructional materials to thousands of learners at a time by recording the teaching of an effective teacher into machines.

3.      By the use of this technology,students can learn according to their own ability and needs,e.g.,if the rate (speed) of learning of a student is very slow ,he can rebound the tape recorder or log on the website more than once until the topic is clear to him. Thus,with the help of this technology,we can control the problem of individual differences to a great extent.

4.      Right responses of students can be reinforced regularly which will lead to further right responses to occur.

5.      This technology is also based on principles of psychology and social values and instructional materials are prepared by the following these principles and values.

6.      By using this technology into researches instructional principles can be developed

7.      Comprehensive analysis of the subject- matter is also possible with the help of this technology and it can make the prwesentation easy and logical.

D) System Analysis

This approach of instructional design is related to management technology.By its decision making processes, this technology has greatly influenced the fields of industry,trade.administration and military.

The assumptions of this system are that every human behavior works as a component of an organized system and since no system is perfect in itself, we can come to know the defects, of the system by analyzing various components of the system. And after knowing the defects improvement can be made. For example, administration of a school is not an independent entity in itself but it is only a part of the whole educational administration as well as the society. So, administration of the school is definitely  influenced by these two greater systems. If we want to remove the defects of any school system, it is necessary to analyse all its internal and external elements separately and quantitatively.

Procedure of system analysis:

System analysis is comprised of the following steps.

Step 1: Formulation of objectives:

This is the most difficult step of the system analysis where objectives are determined keeping in view the budgetary and human resources,plants,equipments,rules and regulations imposed by the education department of the state and the output produced by other schools and so on.

StepII: Assessment of activities :

 Here we find out the areas where the defects lie after making quantitative assessment of all the activities of the system.

Step III: Collection of Data :

After identifying the problems relevant data are collected to know whether they are really problems and if they are really problems.then to what extent they are affecting the system.Statistical methods are used for collecting data.

StepIV: Analysis of Data :

Sometimes we consider those things as problem which are not problem in real sense.Analysis of data helps us to verify or deny a problem.Thus,this is the step of hypothesis testing.

StepV : Determination of the Problem :

Here ,problem is defined in clear and behavioural terms.

Step VI : Explanation of the Scope of the Problem :

After knowing and ascertaining the problem ,its various aspects are explained comprehensively.Then each of these aspects are studied in detail in the context of other school systems.

Step VII : Outlining the solution :

Here, new outline is prepared for the solution of the problem.This solution is based on different models of the system working in the society.

Step VIII: Use of the new model:

For the purpose of reaching the solution of the problem ,new model is introduced in the system.

Step IX : Evaluation of the new model :

After applying the model into system ,its outcomes and effects are evaluated every now and then. This process continues till the model coincides with the objectives decided in the beginning.

StepX : Comprehensive generalization :

If this model is found fit for successful functioning of one system,it is published for extensive uses in other systems.

Items of System Analysis: We can analysis the system of a school on the basis of the following items and improvement can be made accordingly:

1.            Teacher – Students ratio.

2.            Classroom students ratio.

3.            Library and lab facilities.

4.            Facilities for co – curricular activities.

5.            Working hours and working days in a particular session.

6.            Number of homework and class work given to students.

7.            Number of unit tests in a year.

8.            Regular checking of CWs and HWs.

9.            Number of punishment given to defaulters – ( teacher and students both can be defaulters).

10.        The number of teacher – parents meet in the school in one session and so on.

Contribution of Educational Technology:

1.      Micro Teaching, Simulated Teaching, Interactional Analysis, AV aids, Programmed Learning

2.      Has base from (i) Psychology science, technology, system art, av aids and machines are used.

3.      Based on the application of science knowledge.

4.      Makes T.L. process easy, clear, interesting and scientific.

5.      Helps to evaluate outcomes.

1.                  DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY IN EDUCATION AND TECHNOLOGY OF EDUCATION

Technology of Education

                 Technology of education is inhernet in education itself. It refers to the application of behavioural sciences like psychology of educational theories and practical teaching – learning problems, instruction and motivation etc., It is concerned with the study of educational problems and the techniques to be used in solving those problems so that the best results are achieved. Broadly speaking, technologies of planning, financing and administration are also covered under the concept of technology of education. Techniques of curriculum planning, transacting and evaluating also come under the same concept. Here we use the principles derived from psychology of learning.

                 In general, the following techniques are used in order to meet the objectives of the concept:

1. Analysis of instructional problems.

2. Selection of instruments for evaluation.

3. Selection of strategies to obtain the desired result from the teaching – learning process.

4. Teacher behaviour.

5. Programmed learning.

6. System analysis.

Technology in Education

                 The term ‘technology in education’ is a service concept like technology in the service of agriculture of farmers or science in the service of mankind. It refers to the use of equipments and machines for educational purposes. It involves the use of a wide range of audiovisual equipments, hardware and sophisticated electronic devices like film, projectors, radio, television, tape recorder, teaching machines, computer and internet, etc. Educational technology as explained earlier is a wider term as compared to technology in education. It includes hardware approach, software approach and systems approach to technology.

                 Technology in education refers to the application of engineering principles and technology in the process of education. Basically, it is known as hardware technology.

                 Silverman (1968) referred to technology in education as ‘relative technology’ and technology of education as ‘constructive educational technology’.

Differences between Technology of Education & Technology in Education

No	Area	Technology of education	Technology in education
1	Basis	It is based on child psychology (age, ability & mental level)	It is based on the principles of physical sciences or engineering sciences.
2	Approach	It is software approach to education.	It is hardware approach to education.
3.	Origin	Its origin lies in the application of behavioural sciences to the problems of learning and motivation.	Its origin lies in the application of physical sciences or engineering to education.
4.	Nature	It is inherent in education itself.	It receives inputs from outside.
5.	Contents	Analysis of instructional problems, learning aids and three dimensional objects.	Hardware, different types of projectors, audio – visual aids.
6.	Examples	System analysis, teacher behaviour, management of teaching – learning, programme instruction.	TV,radio, projector, etc.,
7.	Realtion	It is related to learning.	It is related to teaching aids.
8.	Requirement	The use of this approach does not require skilled personnel as in hardware technology.	Skilled personnel in hardware technology are required.
9.	Flexibility	This approach is very flexible. The material can be recognised according to the needs of the learner.	This approach is relatively rigid.
10.	Type	It is called constructive educational technology	It is called relative technology
11.	Contribution to the educational system	This approach is very helpful in understanding the need of the learners and educating them accordingly.	It is useful in mass education programmes.
12.	Cost	It is less costly.	It is expensive.
13.	Use of electricity	May not require electricity	Use of electricity is more or less insdispensable.

A word of caution:  There is no clear cut demarcation between hardware of technology of education and software like black boards and films. Sometimes such aids are treated as elements of technology in education also.

2.      AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

            The objectives of Educational Technology at macro level or broad level are as under:

1. To identify educational needs of the community.

2. To determine the aims of education.

3. To develop a suitable curriculum.

4. To determine appropriate strategies.

5. To identify the resources-human and non-human.

6. To locate the major obstacles in the way of proper development of learners.

7. To suggest remedies to overcome the above traced out obstacles.

8. To manage the whole system of education.

Specific Objectives

The objectives of educational technology at micro-level i.e., in view of specific class-room teaching are as under:

1. To identify the educational needs of the pupils.

2. To determine the class-room objectives in behavioural terms.

3. To analyse the contents of instructions and organise them.

4. To plan the teaching strategies.

5. To identify the resources-human and non-human.

6. To evaluate class-room teaching in terms of students’ performance.

7. To provide feedback to the teacher and the students for betterment of teaching-learning process.

Regarding objectives of Educational Technology, Hilliard Joson has given the following objectives :

1. Transmission of Information.

2. Serving as role model.

3. Assisting the practice of specific skills.

4. Contribution to the provision of feedback.

Main Objectives of Educational Technology

1. To help in the environment of facilities required in the teaching learning process.

2. To make the class-room teaching more effective.

3. To modify the behaviour of the teacher and the learner.

4. To improve and update the methods of learning.

3.      APPROACH: HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

HARDWARE APPROACH:

The hardware approach is based on the application of engineering principles for developing electro-mechanical equipment for instructional purposes. Motion pictures, tape recorders, television, teaching machines, computers are called educational hardware.

Hardware approach mechanises the process of teaching so that teachers would be able to deal with more students with less expenditures in educating them.

Human knowledge has three aspects:

§  Preservation,

§  Transmission and

§  Development.

The history of preservation of the knowledge is believed to exist since the printing machines started. The knowledge is preserved with these machines in the form of books which are shelved in the libraries, tape recorders and films.

The second aspect of human knowledge is its transmission. A teacher can impart knowledge himself to his pupils. Now a days, transmission of the knowledge is supported by machine like mike, radio and television. With these, thousands of pupils enjoy this home-delivery of such benefits.

The third aspect of human knowledge is its development. For this aspect, provisions are made for research work. In the research programmes, the main function is the collection and analysis of data. For this purpose, presently the researcher uses the electronic machines and computers. Hence, all the three aspects of knowledge allow the use of machines. In short, the teaching process has been mechanized. The mechanization of teaching process is termed as the Hardware Approach.

SOFTWARE APPROACH:

The software approach used the principles of psychology for building in the learners a complex repertory of knowledge or modifying his behaviour. It originates from behavioural sciences and their applied aspects concerning psychology of learning. Psychology of learning provides solid technology for bringing desirable behavioural changes in the pupils and thus serves the cause of education of laying down definite instructional procedure, teaching behaviour and behaviour modification devices.

The pioneering work in software approach was done by Skinner and other behaviourists. The programmes which such a technology produces are often called software. Software Approach is also termed as Instructional Technology or Teaching Technology or Behavioural Technology. Newspapers, books, magazines, educational games, flash cards may also form part of software. Software approach is characterised by task analysis, writing precise objectives, selection of appropriate learning strategies, immediate reinforcement of responses and constant evaluation.

Hence Software Approach is concerned with teaching objectives in behavioural terms, principles of teaching, methods of teaching, reinforcement of instructional system, feedback, reviews and evaluation. Software approach tries to develop all the three basic components of technology, i.e. Input, Process and Output.

HARDWARE & SOFTWARE TECHNOLOGIES

Hardware Technology	Software Technology
1. Hardware technology has its origin in physical sciences and applied engineering.	1. Software technology has its origin in behavioural sciences and their applied aspects concerning psychology of learning
2. Here we are more concerned with the production and utilization of audio visual aid material and sophisticated instruments and mass media for helping teacher and learners in their task.	2. Here we try to make use of psychology of learning for the production and utilization of software techniques and materials in terms of learning material, teaching-learning strategies and other devices for smoothening the task of teaching learning.
3. It tries to adopt product-oriented approach. What is produced through software technology in the shape of teaching-learning material and strategy in being utilized by the hardware instruments and gadgets for effective teaching learning.	3. It tries to adopt a process-oriented technique or approach for the production of teaching-learning material and strategies. The material produced here is made available for being used by the hardware application.
4. It is based on the concept of service meaning hereby that it provides services in the field of education much in the same way as provided by telephone, electric heater, bulb etc. in the sphere of our day to day life. In this sense hardware technology clearly stands for making use of technology in education.	4. Software technology does not provide direct services to its users as provided by hardware technology and applied engineering. It helps in the production of software material being used by the hardware applications and gadgets for delivering their service to the users i.e. teachers and learners.
5. As examples of the appliances and gadgets being used in hardware technology service we can name radio, television, tape recorder, video, slides and film projectors, teaching machines and computer etc.	5. As examples of the material produced through software technology we can name, programmed learning material teaching learning strategy on psychology of learning (put into practice in the shape of charts, pictures, models, slides filmstrips, audio and video cassettes, software packages etc.)
6. Hardware technology needs the services of software technology for its use and functioning. It can’t go without the aid of software technology e.g. computer hardware in the shape of a machine like device is of no use if it does not make use of software services both for its operation as a machine and its multi-dimensional utilities. The use of application and utility software is in fact must for taking any service from the hardware technology of the computer.	6. Software technology proves most useful and productive in the case if it is assisted and made into use by the hardware applications and gadgets. However, it can go alone for delivering its services to the users without calling aid from the hardware technology i.e. you can make use of programmed learning material a graph a text, etc. directly for the individualized as well as group instructions.
7. Hardware technology has its mass appeal and utilization. It can contribute a lot in handing over the educational benefits to masses with greater case and economy.	7. Software technology has no such wide application and appeal to masses as found in the case of hardware appliances like radio, telephone, computer application, etc.
8. Hardware technology has resulted in improving the efficiency of educational, means and reducing the cost of education. A teacher may handle a big class with the help of hardware appliances like microphone, slide and film projectors etc.	8. Software technology also works for increasing the efficiency of the teachers as well as learning. However, it lags behind in the task of improving efficiency and reducing the cost of education.

4.      DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY

            Educational technology is more comprehensive and broad-based concept. Instructional technology is a sub system of the main system of educational technology. Education is comprehensive process and imparting of instruction is one of the several means to achieve the goals of education. As a result, the technology of instruction may be regarded as a part of section of the whole phenomenon of educational technology.

           In strict sense, instructional technology is concerned with determining and providing appropriate stimuli to the learner to produce a certain type of responses for making learning more effective. On the other hand, educational technology is concerned with the scientific use of the available human and non-human resources for solving various problems of education (including instruction) for optimizing the result of the whole teaching-learning process.

The terms educational technology and instructional technology may seem interchangable, but they in fact have important important subtle differences, when understood can make the differences to an educator(s) planning and inplementation of instruction. The analysis between educational technology and instruction technology are in fact found at the roots of their definitions.

            Education is defined as the "activities and resources that support learning". This refers to all activities and resources both planned and unplanned that contribute to a students' learning regardless of whether the learning is intentional or unintentional. On the other hand , instruction refers to " activites structured by someone other than the learner and oriented toward specific ends. Instruction is part of the education as a whole but instruction, unlike education, is carefully mapped out in every detail.

      Educational technolgy is defined as "the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating using, and managing, appropriate technological processes and resources. Instructional Technology is defined as "the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning"
Contrast the characteristics of educational technology and Instructional technology

Educational	Instructional
Teaches about technology as a content area	Teaches with technology (uses technology as a tool)
Key words: integration and education	Key words: learning environments, instructional systems and process
Shape curriculum or solve performance	Focus more on the development and creating of the learning system that involve some type of technology
Primary Goal: Technological literacy for everyone	Primary Goal: To enhance the teaching and learning process
Concerned with the broad spectrum of technology (How humans have designed and innovated the natural world )	Primarily concerned with the narrow spectrum of information and communication technologies

5.      ROLE OF A TEACHER IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY.

Generally teachers retained many of their traditional roles (e.g. class leader or director, lecturer, information giver, discussion leader). They also negotiated multiple new roles in Gaelic language classrooms that utilised innovative technology-supported practices. The new teacher roles identified were: instructional designer; trainer; collaborator; student; silent partner; team coordinator; advisor; and monitoring and assessment specialist. Each role was associated with specific activities and was made possible by the use of technology in support of project-based learning in inquiry-based instructional methods.

“Instructional designer” is one of the more common new roles taken on by teachers. Much like the “self-learner” role adopted by students, teachers in this role found themselves designing, planning and organising their classrooms in order to effectively use and integrate technology into their Gaelic language lessons. “The instruction designer takes into account all of the resources available to meet the variety of needs his/her students have and implements well-designed activities to address those needs.” (Kozma, 1994)

The role of “trainer” was also reflected in the study. “Trainers” give individual instruction to enable skilled development. This training or mentoring was accomplished through modelling the use of multimedia and technology, and helping the students see how they might use software tools to accomplish unique language learning tasks.

The “collaborator” role was also evident. “Collaborator refers to a variety of activities teachers undertake to work with their colleagues to improve their instruction.” (Kozma & Schank,1998). These activities included informal sharing with colleagues and team teaching. They also included collaborating, sharing and learning with the students as equals. “I am convinced that the best learning takes place when the learner takes charge..,”(Papert,1993:p. 25).

“Team co-ordinator” was another teacher role supported by the data collected. The focus of this role was on the active assignment of individual students to project or portfolio teams. In addition to opening up opportunities for collaborative and social learning activities, teachers who assumed the “team co-ordinator” role created opportunities for peer tutoring, apprenticeship modelling, and support between students with mixed ability levels.

The role of “enabling advisor” refers to those teachers who gave assistance, advice, suggestions or posed questions in a way that enabled students to find the information they needed to complete particular multimedia or language-learning tasks. “Teachers who give so much autonomy to their students are thereby declaring their belief in a radically different theory of knowledge, one that entails far more work for them as well as their students (Papert, 1993:p. 63). A common term used sometimes to describe this role is the term ‘facilitator’.”

The “mentoring and assessment specialist” refers to the new role where teachers and students alike mentored and monitored performance and attempted to assess and improve that performance.

These various teacher roles align with, and exist in tandem with the new student roles previously outlined. Additionally the new teacher roles appear to overlap the different student roles observed in the schools. The student role of “self-learner” is complemented and supported by the roles the teachers play as “trainer”, “instructional designer”, and “monitoring and assessment specialist”, and visa versa. The student role of “knowledge manager”, a creator of Gaelic language knowledge portfolios, is related to and supported by the advisor, instructional designer, team co-ordinator, and collaborator roles that teachers adopted. Indeed many roles were inter-changeable throughout the observations.